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BOOKS BY 
FELIX ARNOLD, PD. D., PH. D. 

Member of the 

American Anthropological Association, American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, 
American Humane Association, Ameri- 
can Psychological Association, 
American Sociological Society, 
New York Academy of 
Sciences, Royal So- 
ciety of A rts, 
Etc. 

Principal Public School, New York City 



Attention and Interest, 

Cloth, 12mo., viii -f- 272 pages 
The MacMillan Co., - - $1.00 

The Psychology of Association, 

Paper, 8 vo., iv + 80 pages 

The Science Press, - - 50c 

Text-Book of School and Class Management, 

Volume I— Supervision and Class Management 

Cloth, 12mo., xxii + 409 pages 
The MacMillan Co., - - $1.25 

Volume II — Administration and Hygiene 

Cloth, 12mo., xii+288 pages 

The MacMillan Co., - - $1.00 



IN PREPARATION 

General Method of Instruction, 

Between 300 and 400 pages 

A handbook of devices and methods for the classroom 

Mental and Physical Retardation of Children, 

Between 200 and 300 pages 

An intensive analysis of conditions and causes of retardation 
based upon experiments and tests with school children 



BAY PRESS 

824 ST. NICHOLAS AVE., NEW YORK 



Outline History 



of 



Education 



BY 

FELIX ARNOLD, Ph. D. 



NEW YORK 

THE BAY PRESS 
1911 



^ 



copyright, 1911, 

By Felix Aenold. 

Published June, 1911. 



#V 



^> 



©CI. A 2920 9 7 



Contents 

I. Modern 7 

II. Ancient ---'-- 58 

III. Medieval - 74 

IV. Contemporary - 84 
V. Elementary Education - - 89 

VI. Universities - 98 

Biographical Notes - - - - 105 



(The above divisions are only approximate) 



Preface 



An outline history of education or of any other sub- 
ject should always be used in conjunction with original 
works or with a more discursive book on the same sub- 
ject. No outline can take the place of a more extended 
treatise or of original works. The present outline is 
no exception to this rule. The student should read 
some books by Herbart, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, 
Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Rabelais, or other writers. 
He should also read some good history of education of 
which there are now quite a few. Among others, the 
following suggestions might be of aid : 

I. Try to apply in the classroom as much of the 
educational theory and practice as possible. Much of 
what is given by Herbart, Froebel, Pestalozzi, Com- 
enius, and others is still of great practical value. 

II. Organise the different suggestions given by any 
author and try to discover stages of development, in- 
terconnection, and interdependence. For example, 
show how the different topics treated under Herbart 
and the Herbartians develop naturally out of the Her- 
bartian scheme of consciousness and ideas. 

III. Compare a series of educational works and show 
relationships. Find resemblances and differences. 
Take any topic and work it through a number of edu- 
cational theories and practices. Compare, for example, 
the ideas of self-activity or of doing as presented by 
Froebel, Comenius, and Herbart. Compare the dif- 
ferent aims of education of writers or teachers of the 
same period, or of different periods. Show what one 

5 



PREFACE 

author has taken from another and incorporated in his 
own work, or what changes he has made. 

IV. In general try to keep the following general 
topics in mind: 

1. Aim of education. 

2. Theory of education, as, general principles, di- 
rections, etc. 

3. Means of education 

Course of study. 
Methods of instruction. 
Methods of discipline. 
Material or personnel. 

4. Books written. 

5. Practical work done in schools or institutions. 

6. Conditioning environment. 

It will be found that work done by the different edu- 
cational reformers will include one or more of the 
fields enumerated. 

FELIX ARNOLD. 

New York City. 



I. HERB ART'S MECHANIK OF IDEAS 

Consciousness is a field for the interplay of ideas, 
i. e. } their opposition, reinforcement, etc. 

An idea which is in the field of consciousness is 
above the 'threshold;' one not in consciousness is below 
the 'threshold.' 

In any series of ideas, 

a, b, c, d etc., 

as a is followed by b it is closer to b than c ; a is there- 
fore forced into consciousness by b, b by c, and so on. 
In the following diagram, a is above the threshold of 
consciousness, is reinforced by b and tends to drag b 
with it into consciousness. 



\ 



\ 
b 

\ 
c 

\ 
d 

In the following diagram, when d is in the field of 
consciousness, the other ideas are in the order indicated. 

d 

/ 

/ 
c 

/ 
b 

/ 
a 

In the interaction of ideas feeling is created. This 
feeling may give rise to desire, and so to willed action. 

Systems of ideas properly organised give bases of ap- 
perception and so of interest. (The six-fold interests, or 
better, interest-producing systems of apperception). 

7 



8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

II. APPERCEPTION 

''Apperception may be denned as that interaction be- 
tween two similar ideas or thought-complexes, in the 
course of which the weaker, unorganised, isolated idea 
or thought-complex is incorporated into the richer, bet- 
ter digested and more firmly compacted one." 

"Apperception is that psychical activity by which in- 
dividual perceptions, Ideas, or idea-complexes are 
brought into relation to our previous intellectual and 
emotional life, assimilated with it, and thus raised to 
greater clearness, activity and significance." 

"Apperception is more than accumulation of knowl- 
edge. It is mind awakening, mind activity, mind de- 
fining, mind enlargement by assimilating of new knowl- 
edge with corresponding mind content, to form a great- 
er content." 



Apperception 

Dynamic. 

Emphasises old knowl- 
edge, and what is 
known. 

Relates the old with the 
new. 

Modifies the old with the 
new, and the new with 
the old. 



Association 

Static. 

Emphasises new knowl- 
edge. 

Connects without relating. 

New is simply received 
and connected with the 
old. 



Kinds of Apperception 

1. Identifying. The impression corresponds to a 
picture in the memory. 

2. Subsuming. There is present a classifying, ar- 
ranging, proving, inferring, esthetic, or ethical judg- 
ment, which receives the new impression. 

3. Harmonising. A proper relation is found between 
coordinate ideas. 

4. Creative or Formative. There is first created the 
apperceiving factor, as in poetry, art, induction, or de- 
duction. 



HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 9 

Rules of Practice 

1. Appeal to the experience of the child. Cnoose 
such materials of knowledge as lie close to the child's 
experiences in general. 

2. Arrange the materials of instruction so that each 
step prepares for the next. Each topic should form a 
strong aid for the apperception of the following topic. 

3. The various parallel subjficts of the curriculum 
should be arranged in such a manner, that in each 
grade as many allied topics as possible may be asso- 
ciated, so that what is related in experience and in 
fact may be related in the consciousness of the child. 
(Law of concentration and correlation of studies). 

4. Proceed gradually, so as to allow of proper as- 
similation. 



Value of Apperception. 

1. Former knowledge is made use of. 

2. The use of an acquired stock of ideas involves a 
constant working over of the old ideas, and so fixes 
them by repetition. 

3. Experience is unified and organised by the forma- 
tion of mental systems and series. 

4. The child gradually acquires a stock of ideas 
upon which the teacher can draw. 

5. The general plan of lesson is based upon the 
notion of acquiring knowledge by the assistance of 
accumulated funds. 

6. There is a consciousness of power due to the 
ability to make use of knowledge. 

7. The apperceptive process works towards the de- 
velopment of general notions. 

8. The teacher is able to supervise and guide ap- 
perception. 



III. INTEREST. 

Interest is a feeling of value. 

1. Consciousness of value 

2. Memory of value 

3. Judgment of value 



10 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Kinds of Interest 

1. Indirect interest 

Leads us to pursue some course, not for its own 
sake, but in order to gain some advantage, 
prize, scholarship, etc. 
Leads to one-sidedness, if not to egotism. 
Leads to a consideration of everything in its 
relation to the narrow circle in which one 
lives. 
2. Direct interest 

Works from pure motives. 

Brings pleasure due to devotion to a subject for 

its own sake. 
Is manifold, well balanced, all-embracing. 
Is closely connected with other interests and 
mental systems. 
Interest should be (1) far reaching, (2) direct and 
immediate, and (3) manifold. 



Interest and Willed Action 

1. Ideas, quickened by interest, develop into willed 
action. 

2. Willed action depends upon ideas. But all ideas 
do not produce willed action. 

3. Ideas become vitalised through interest. 

4. Ideas are 'pictures of the will' to guide action. 



Classification of Interests 

I. Due to experience with things 

1. Empirical. The result of knowledge gained 
by experience and observation. 

2. Speculative. The result of the investigation 
of the causes of things. 

3. Esthetic. The result of the contemplation 
of the true, the beautiful and the good. 

II. Due to intercourse with men 

1. Sympathetic. The result of participation 
in the sorrows or joys of others, especially in 
the family. 



HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 11 

2. Social. The feeling of sympathy extended 
beyond the family. 

3. Religious. Sympathy extended beyond the 
world. Duties and responsibilities of life in- 
cluded. 

III. One-sidedness of interest. 

1. Empirical. When one kind of objects is 
seized upon to the neglect of the rest, as in 
botany, mineralogy, zoology, etc., as in study 
of special languages, travel in special coun- 
tries, and the like. 

2. Speculative. Confinement to some theoreti- 
cal pursuit, as logic, mathematics, a system of 
metaphysics, etc. 

3. Esthetic. Concentration on painting, 
sculpture, lyric or dramatic poetry, music, 
etc. 

4. Sympathetic. Restriction of one's company 
to social peers, fellow countrymen, family 
members, etc., with a lack of fellow feeling 
for others. 

5. Social. Bias towards a political party, na- 
tional policy, etc. 

6. Religious. Emphasis on some creed or sect. 
Scorn of any one who holds to a different 
creed or religion. 



Five Moral Relationships or Ideas 

1. Inner Freedom. Satisfaction arising from 
an inner harmony of ideas. 

2. Efficiency of Will. Consistency, as in a will 
concentrated on some well planned action. 

3. Good Will. Social efficiency, kindness, be- 
nevolence, charity, etc. 

4. Justice. Prevention of moral strife. 

5. Equity. Requital. Basis of rewards, insti- 
tutions, etc. 



12 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

IV. CONCENTRATION. 

Circle of Thought 

Experience Intercourse 

Things of the Environ- Men of the Environment 

merit 

Nature Life 

Knowledge Sympathy 

Broadening of Experi- Broadening of Inter- 

ence course 

Natural science Historical branches 

Eealistic direction Humanistic direction 



Value of Concentration 

1. Ethical. Strong action and consistent action de- 

pend on unity of mind. 

Consistent action requires prompt and resolute 
decisions. This depends upon connection between 
ideas. 

Ideas control conduct and facilitate moral judg- 
ment. 

2. Psychological. Any special interest of the child 

can be used as a basis on which to build others. 

Concentrated motives are possible through 
mental unity. 

New matter can be received and made clear by 
acquired ideas. 

3. Practical. Enrichment of the course of study is 

possible. 

Systematic and planned instruction is possible. 

(Geography is the connecting link between the 
historic-humanistic branches and the branches of 
natural science). 



Concentration, Coordination and Correlation 

Concentration is the subordination of the material of 
instruction about a central core, (Ziller, history-liter- 
ature), or (Parker, it is the departure of instruction 
from the child as the center of activity). 

Coordination allows each important subject or group 
of subjects to have its own principle of development. 



HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 13 

Each group has natural and easy associations in the 
lower grades. Coordination does not attempt to give 
a philosophic grasp of the highest unity of knowledge 
until the pupil is sufficiently mature to comprehend 
this phase of thought. 
De Garmo. Three groups 

1. The humanities. 

2. The scientific studies. 

3. Economic studies. 

Harris. Five groups (Five windows of the soul). 

1. Mathematics. Time, space and mechanical 
relations. 

2. Organic nature. Geography. 

3. Literature and art. Human nature as feel- 
ings, convictions, aspirations. 

4. Grammar, logic, philosophy. The intellectual 
structure. 

5. History. The doings of the greater social 
self as reaction. 

"Correlation is such a connection between the parts 
of each study and such a spinning of relations and con- 
necting links between different subjects, that unity 
may spring out of the variety of knowledge. As com- 
monly used correlation expresses the idea of inter- 
connection between studies." 



Kinds of Correlation 

1. Serial connection of ideas in a single study. 
Logical order of topics and branches. Each topic 
should be a preparation for the following. (Apper- 
ception) 

2. Relation of the different subjects to each other. 
Symmetrical whole of studies in the world of human 
learning. 

3. Relations between school studies and home life. 
Correlation of the pupil's course of study with the 
world in which he lives. Correlation between the 
school and the pupils' spiritual and natural environ- 
ment. 



14 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

4. Psychological symmetry. Organisation and uni- 
fication of knowledge so as to procure mental unity 
and organisation, and facile use of knowledge. 

5. Observation and fixation of the relations as well 
as the facts learned. 



V. CULTURE EPOCH THEORY 

Ontogenetic and phylogenetic development run par- 
allel. 

The child in its development follows in general the 
development of the race. 

The individual in his mental development repeats 
the evolution of all mankind from earliest times. 



Objections to the Culture Epoch Theory 

1. We must allow for the present environment in 
which the child lives. 

2. There is great difficulty in interpreting properly 
and in presenting the past history of the race. 

3. It is inadvisable to present all the stages of 
primitive development. 

4. The highest forms of moral life should not be 
withheld till the child is old, but should be presented as 
soon as possible. 

5. The child has to a great extent absorbed modern 
views and advanced notions and so will not respond to 
more primitive appeals. 







VI. FORMAL STEPS 






Herbart and Zilier 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 


Clearness 

Analysis (by the teacher). 

Synthesis (by the child). 
Association 
System. 
Method (function). 



HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 15 

Rein 

1. Preparation (of the child's mind). Statement of 
aim. 

2. Presentation. 
, 3. Association. 

4. Condensation. 

5. Application. 



C. A. McMurry 

1. Presentation 

Preparation. 
Presentation. 

2. Elaboration 

Association and comparison. 
Generalisation or abstraction. 
Application. 



Formal Steps in Outline 

Preparation. Statement of the aim 
Reasons for preparation 

It prevents misunderstanding. 

It rouses sympathy with the lesson and pre- 
vents indifference. 

It affords opportunity for review. 
Reasons for stating the aim 

It clears the mind of irrelevant ideas. 

It encourages the rise of kindred thoughts. 

It excites expectation. 

It gives the mind a strong incentive for ex- 
ercising the will. 
Kinds of statement of aim 

1. A sentence which simply sets forth the 
work of the new method whole. 

2. A question to which no answer is ex- 
pected and which serves to give a tendency to 
the pupil's thoughts. 

3. A problem or example which introduces 
some new mathematical or scientific method- 
whole (i. e., logical division of the subject mat- 
ter to be presented) containing a general 



16 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

truth at which the child is to arrive by apper- 
ception and abstraction. 

II. Presentation 

1. Narrative. 

2. Developing. 

III. Association. Comparison and abstraction. 

IV. Condensation. Generalisation and classification. 

1. Separation of the notional from the con- 
crete. 

2. Formulation of the notional in language. 

3. Classification of the conceptions formed. 

4. Repetition and fastening of the concept. 

V. Application 

To give stability and mobility of knowledge. 

To exercise knowledge upon practical ques- 
tions. 

To increase the content of the general by de- 
scent to particulars. 



Objections to the Formal Steps 

1. The mind does not form concepts in the manner 
indicated. As soon as new matter is presented, a crude 
general notion is formed. 

2. Application is placed at the end of the series. 
Application, however, should be used in each of the 
steps. It should operate all along the line. 

3. The formal steps are not really method. They 
do not tell the teacher definitely what to do. They are 
basic principles of method, rather than method. 

4. The teacher is placed in the foreground and the 
child is kept passive, waiting to be 'prepared' and in- 
structed. 

5. The steps ignore the sensorimotor aspect of 
child life, the play instinct, and all the activities em- 
phasized by Froebel. 

VII. DISCIPLINE 
Government 

Government aims at producing no result in mental 
development. It seeks only to create a spirit of order. 
It deals with the present. 



HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 17 

The means of government are : 

1. Threats, in case of need, enforced by com- 
pulsion. 

2. Supervision. 

3. Authority. 

4. Love. 



Training 

The direct action on the mind with a view to form 
habits of action is discipline. It deals with the future, 
and aims to produce habituation to a fixed order of 
things. 



Rules 

There must be a cultivation of systematic self- 
activity. 

The school must be an ethical community. 

The personality of the teacher should operate in 
forming- character. 

Training in general should (1) restrain, (2) exert a 
determinative influence, and (3) regulate. 



18 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

FROEBEL 

Aim of Education. 

"Education should lead and guide man to clearness 
concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, 
and to unity with God. Hence it should lift him to a 
knowledge of himself and of mankind, to a knowledge 
of God and of nature, and to the pure and holy life to 
which such knowledge leads." 

"Education consists in leading man, as a thinking, 
intelligent being, growing into self-consciousness, to a 
pure and unsullied, conscious and free representation 
of the inner law of Divine Unity, and in teaching him 
ways and means thereto. ' ' 



General Principles 
Self -activity 

1. Songs 

With pictures and imitative movements. 
Sensorimotor instruction. Aid of rhythm, 
harmony, movement and pleasure. 

2. Games and play 

Self-control through dramatic impulse. Self- 
expression of the inner child in a natural 
manner. 

3. Kindergarten 

Gifts 

Occupations. 

Solids, modeling, sloyd, etc. Surfaces, draw- 
ing, coloring, weaving, plaiting. Lines and 
points, threading of beads, connecting sticks 
with wax or cork, etc. 

Difference between gifts and occupations 
Gifts Occupations 

Child takes in or Child gives out or 

assimilates. expresses. 

Discovery Invention. 

Acquisition of Acquisition of 

ideas. power 

4. General value 

All-sided activity of the whole being called 
into play. 



FROEBEL 19 

Receptive, reflective and expressive powers 
are called into play. 

Instruction aims at formation rather than 
at information. 

The inner child is revealed. 

The dramatic impulse leads to voluntary 
control. 

It is originative and creative rather than 
imitative. 

There is freedom and natural interest. 

The love of inventiveness and the love of 
discovery are cultivated. 
II. Unity and inner connection. All-sided connect- 
edness and unbroken unity. 

1. Inner connection between 

Man and God 

Man and the race 

Man and the environment. 

Childhood and youth, youth and manhood. 

Receptive, reflective and expressive powers. 

2. The individual and particular is made gen- 
eral, and the general is made individual and 
particular. The external is made internal, and 
the internal, external. Both are unified. 

III. The sentiment of personality is cultivated. 
Each child has his own chair in the kinder- 
garten. 

Plays and games encourage initiative. 
Observation and invention are stimulated by the 
gifts and occupations. 

IV. Education in accordance with nature. 
Development is progressive. Each stage has its 

special condition and may be assisted by suit- 
able means. 
Education must be based upon a study of child 
nature. 

V. Education in instruction and training should be 
passive. 

Education should guide and protect the child. 
It should not prescribe, dictate nor interfere. 



20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

VI. Love and sympathy for the child. 

VII. Direct experience with things. Immediate ob- 
servation and use of the objects in nature. 

VIII. Association with others. Companionship and 
social intercourse. 

IX. Basic principles. 

1. Self-activity. 

2. Unity. 

3. Development. 

Gifts 

1. Colored woolen balls. 3 primary colors (red, blue 
yellow), 3 secondary (green, purple, orange). 

Uses 

Training for the hand and eye. 
Direction taught — up, down, forward, etc. 
Qualities, roundness, softness, etc. 
Exercise of the limbs. 

2. Sphere, cube, cylinder (made of wood). 

Use. Instruction in form, qualities, relation- 
ship, etc. 

3. Large cube cut into 8 small cubes. (First build- 

ing box.) 

Form and number. 
Whole and part. 

Fractions, addition, subtraction, construction, as 
real processes. 

4. Cube cut into 8 oblong blocks. (Bricks. Second 

building box.) 

Number, form, comparison of forms, new series 
of building exercises, etc. 

5. Large cube cut into 27 small cubes. (Third 

building box.) 

Form and number. Figure and design. 

6. Large cube cut into 27 oblong blocks. (Fourth 

building box.) 

More varied exercises. Originality fostered. 

7. Surfaces. Squares, half squares, triangles. 

Mosaic work. Artistic desisrn. 



FBOEBEL 



21 



8. Lines, straight (splints), and circular (metal or 

paper rings). 

9. Points. Beans, lentils, peas, leaves, pebbles, 

pieces of cardboard, paper, etc. 

10. Reconstruction. By analysis, the system has 
passed from the solid to the point. 

By synthesis, surfaces and solids are now built 
up. (Softened peas, or wax pellets, sharpened 
sticks, straws, etc.) 



Occupations 

1. Solids 

Plastic clay. 
Cardboard work. 
"Wood carving, etc. 

2. Surfaces 

Paper folding. 
Paper cutting. 
Parquetry. 
Painting, etc. 

3. Lines 

Interlacing. 
Intertwining. 
Weaving. 
Thread games. 
Drawing, etc. 

4. Points 

Stringing beads, but- 
tons, etc. 

Threading perfora- 
tions, etc. 



Control and Spontaneity. 

Freedom through law and 
in accord with law. 

Stimulation and restric- 
tion. 

Self direction 

Means 

In mat weaving, a 
definite design in fol- 
lowed. 

In color work the col- 
ors are limited. 
In paper folding, the 
forms are restricted. 
In paper cutting, a 
logical sequence is 
necessary. 

In design there is cre- 
ative work under limi- 
tations of material 
and subject matter. 



Mother Play 
I. General scheme 

1. The child and nature 
The seasons 
Preparation for winter 
The forces of nature and their relation to 

man 
Renewal of plant and animal life in spring 



22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. The child and the home 

The mother 
The family 

3. The child and the school 

4. The child and the state 

The farmer 
The baker 
The blacksmith 

5. The child and his ideals 

II. Special lesson plan or series of plans. The 
family 

1. Central thought, 'Mother love.' 

2. Picture. Mother rocking cradle, or lulling 

baby to sleep. 

3. Story, 'Go to sleep and wake up.' ('In the 

Child's World') 

4. Nature talks. Birds going away. Leaves 

falling from the trees. 

5. Games and Songs. Nursing the baby. (Play 

with dolls). 

Finger play and games. Dancing and sleep- 
ing games. Lullaby songs. 

6. General. Plant bulbs. Cocoons. Seeds. 

7. Handwork. Clay modeling. Dolly's tea 

things. Dolls made out of paper, wool, etc. 
Folding and coloring. 



The Kindergarten 

Instincts recognised by the kindergarten 

1. Instinct of observation. 

2. Instinct of activity. 

3. Instinct of construction. 

4. Sentiment of personality. 
Principles of the Kindergarten 

1. Exercise of self-activity. 

2. Exercise of creative intellect. 

3. Organised play is founded on imitative in- 

stincts (social imitation). 

4. Happy and harmonious surroundings are nec- 

essary in instruction. 



FROEBEL 23 

History 

First kindergarten was established at Blanken- 
burg, near Keilhau, in 1837. 

In 1839 the name 'kindergarten' was given. 

In 1868-1872, the kindergarten, schools for kin- 
dergartners, and kindergarten societies were 
established in America, by Miss Elizabeth Pea- 
body of Boston, Miss Susan E. Blow, of St. 
Louis, and Miss Marie Boelte (Mrs. John 
Kraus) of New York. 

In 1872 an association was formed at Manchester, 
England, who founded an institution for the 
training of kindergartners. 

The kindergarten spread in France, Italy, and 
other countries at about the same time as in 
England and America. 



24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

PESTALOZZI 

Aim of Education 

' ' The aim of education is to qualify the human being 
for the free and full use of all the faculties implanted 
by the Creator, and to direct all those faculties towards 
the perfection of the whole being of man, that he may 
be enabled to act in his peculiar station as an instru- 
ment of that All-wise and almighty Power that has 
called him to life." 



Periods of Pestalozzi's Life 

1. Childhood and youth, 1746-1771. 

2. Neuhof, 1771-1798. 

3. Stanz, 1798-1799. 

4. Burgdorf and Muenchenbuechsee, 1799-1805. 

5. Yverdon, 1805-1825. 

6. Neuhof, 1825-1827. 



Elements of Method 

1. Number 

How many things? 
How many kinds? 

Objects and units separate from the rest. Dis- 
crimination. 

2. Form 

Size and proportion of objects. 

Representation. 

Description. 

3. Language 

Sounds. 

In speaking. 

In singing. 
Words. 

Names of objects (Nouns). 

Names of characteristics of objects (Adjec- 
tives). 

Names of impressions made by objects 
(Verbs). 

Words in intimate connection as in speaking. 



PESTALOZZI 25 

General Principles 

1. Instruction must be based on ' Anschauung .' It 
must be based on the learner's direct, first hand experi- 
ence. 

2. Instruction must begin with the simplest elements, 
and must be carried on step by step. It must follow 
the development of the child. 

3. The chief aim of instruction is not information or 
skill, but complete development. 

4. The individuality of the pupil must be kept sacred. 

5. Methods must be gentle. Government must be by 
love. 

6. What the learner gains through his own observa- 
tion must be connected by language. 

7. Child nature must be studied. 

8. Basic principles 

'Anschauung.' 

Education for all (Sociological). 

Complete development of the child. 

'Anschauung,' or intuition, is the spontaneous 
action of the human intelligence by which the 
mind seizes a reality without effort, hesita- 
tion, or go-between. It is a direct appercep- 
tion, made, as it were, at a glance. There may 
be intuition. 

(1) of the senses, or sensuous, 

(2) of the intellect, or intellectual, 

(3) of the feelings, or moral. 



Contributions in Arithmetic 

1. Arithmetic is taught in the lowest class, by means 
of perception, and without rules. 

2. A knowledge of number is taught before a knowl- 
edge of figures in the number space from 1 to 10. 

3. There is a knowledge of elementary operations 
before Hindu (Arabic) numerals are given. 

4. Hindu numerals follow this training in pure num- 
ber. 

5. Fractions are taught in the same way. 

6. Arithmetic is made the most prominent study in 
the curriculum. 



26 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

7. Oral arithmetic is emphasised. 

8. Number rather than figures are taught. Mechan- 
ism is abandoned. 

Two influences prominent to-day are : 

(1) Perception as the foundation of number 

work. (Grube method, number pictures 
and arrangement of dots). 

(2) Formal culture as the aim. 



Herbart's Criticism of Pestalozzi 

1. The subjects were chosen without regard to the 
children's interests. 

2. The sentences and subjects were disconnected. 
The names were solitary and alone. 

3. Too much was learned by heart. 

4. The children were always learning. There were 
no stories, conversations, or jokes. 



Spencer's Criticism of Pestalozzi 

1. Pestalozzi gained his principles by flashes of in- 
sight. He had no formulated theory, and hence his 
practice was crude. 

2. Spelling. Pestalozzi taught spelling in an arbi- 
trary manner, combining sounds and impressing them 
by constant repetition. Spencer would have the child 
proceed from the simple to the complex. The simple 
to the child is a sound called forth by familiar objects. 
Moreover, impressions should be markedly contrasted 
as these are first distinguished. 

3. Geography. Pestalozzi divided Germany into a 
number of mechanical divisions and had the child 
memorise the names of sections, etc. 

4. Nursery method. Pestalozzi taught the child the 
names of the parts of the body, then the positions of 
the parts, then the connections, numbers and prop- 
erties, and finally the uses of the limbs and body. 
Spencer holds that this is not in the order of evolution. 
Only markedly contrasted impressions are first dis- 
tinguished. 



PESTALOZZI 27 

5. Formal exercises in the meanings of words and 
the construction of sentences as given by Pestalozzi 
are useless. 

6. Spencer wishes to illustrate the principle, 'From 
the simple to the complex.' According to Spencer, the 
simplest impressions are those which are most vivid, 
most contrasting, as, loud sounds, bright lights, re- 
sisting bodies, etc. We should then pass the impres- 
sions which are closely allied to the vivid impressions. 
Pestalozzi 's arrangements are very arbitrary and 
mechanical. His simple, logical arrangements are not 
simple for the immature child. 



What Pestalozzi Left for Herbart to Do 

1. The development of a scientific psychology as a 
scientific basis for education. 

2. A scientific application of this psychology to 
education. 

3. The revelation of the possibility of making all the 
activities of the school room, including especially in- 
struction, bear directly upon the development of moral 
character. 

4. The completion of perception with apperception. 



28 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



COMPARISONS 



Pestalozzi 

1. Method is instinctive, 

emotional, inspira- 
tional. 

2. Emphasis on observa- 

tion and . imitation. 
Reproduction. 

3. Expression of the child. 

4. Productive activity. 

5. No connection. 

6. Do good for the child. 

Froebel. 



Froebel. 

1. Method is symbolic and 

transcendental. 

2. Emphasis on observa- 

tion and invention. 
Creation. 

3. Self-expression. 

4. Creative self-activity. 

5. Inner connection. 

6. Do good through the 

child. 

Herbart. 



Both agree on child study as a basis for a sound 
pedagogical system. 

Moral character is the aim of education. 

Culture__jep_och theory (Herbartian school and 
FroebelT." 

1. Child study to aid the 

child to work out its 
own self-development. 

2. The work of the child 

magnified. 

3. Self-activity of the 

child emphasised. 

4. Action results from 

will. 

5. The child must make a 

creative use of mind 

content. 

Instruction-creation. 

6. Freedom and harmony. 

7. Soul is the germ of di- 

vinity, a creative syn- 
thesis of external 
relations. 



1. Child study to see what 

best can be done for 
the child. 

2. The work of the teach- 

er magnified. 

3. Instruction emphasised. 

4. Will results from ac- 

tion. 

5. Instruction forms the 

circle of thought. In- 
terest, desire, action, 
will, is the order. 

6. Control and guidance. 

7. Apperception is intel- 

lectual enlargement 
by development. 



SPENCER 

I. WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH 

Test of Knowledge 

'Of what use is it?' 

In savage life idea of ornament precedes idea of 
dress. Same is true of the school. 'Men dress their 
children's minds as they do their bodies, in the pre- 
vailing fashion.' Decorative elements predominate, 
e. g., Latin, Greek, dancing, singing, drawing, history 
dates, death of kings, etc. 

'How to live? This is the essential question for us.' 



Questions to Be Considered 

1. In what way to treat the body. 

2. In what way to treat the mind. 

3. In what way to manage our affairs. 

4. In what way to bring up a family. 

5. In what way to behave as a citizen. 

"To prepare us for complete living is the function 
"education has to discharge." 



Leading Activities of Life 

1. Those which minister directly to self-preservation. 
These are instinctive and are taken care of by nature, 
e. g., reacting to impressions, movements, etc. 

2. Those which by securing the necessities of life 
indirectly minister to self-preservation, e. g., means of 
making a livelihood, industrial activities, etc. 

3. Those which have for their end the rearing and 
discipline of children. Duties of the family, which 
come before those of the state. 

4. Those which are involved in the maintenance of 
proper social and political relations, e. g., duties of a 
citizen. 

5. Those miscellaenous activities which make up the 
leisure part of life devoted to the gratification of the 
tastes and feelings, e. g., music, poetry, painting, etc. 



Kinds of Knowledge 

1. Knowledge of intrinsic value, as science, which 
bears immediately on human action. 

29 



30 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. Knowledge of quasi-intrinsic value, as Latin or 
Greek, which will last only as long as the language lasts. 

3. Knowledge of conventional value, as history, a 
mere tissue of names and dates and dead, unmeaning 
events. 



Value of Science 

1. Physiology. Knowledge of physiology will aid 
nature in preserving health. Knowledge of functions 
of organs and muscles necessary. 

2. Mathematics. Deals with space and number. 
Necessary in carpentry, surveying, building, railway- 
making, designing, astronomy, etc. 

Mechanics. Deals with force. Of use in production 
and distribution of food, clothing, etc., in working of 
machinery, etc. 

Physics. Steam-engine, fuel, ventilation, microscope, 
electricity, magnetism, etc. 

Chemistry. Printing, sugar-refining, gas-making, 
soap-boiling, glass manufacture, distilling, agriculture, 
etc. 

Biology. Dietetics, food, agriculture. 

Science of society. Necessary for all who deal in 
human affairs. 

' ' The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown 
to what we are and which now underlies our whole 
existence, is a knowledge that has got itself taught in 
nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for 
teaching have been mumbling little else but dead for- 
mulas. ' ' 

3. Knowledge of physiology necessary for the rear- 
ing of children. Only general principles. 

4. History as taught deals only with dates, kings, 
court intrigues, battles, etc. What constitutes a great 
part of history, and what is omitted in the school, are 
accounts of social progress, governments, social observ- 
ances, customs, industrial systems, arts, degree of cul- 
ture, of education, of esthetics, and daily life of the 
people and their morality as indicated in laws, prov- 
erbs, deeds, etc. 

Biology and psychology. Knowledge of the individ- 



SPENCER 31 

ual is also necessary to understand human nature, 
and to study history. 

5. Science is also necessary in the case of the fine 
arts, belles-lettres, etc. 

Sculpture. Based upon laws of physics and me- 
chanics. 

Painting. Depends upon laws of perspective, etc. 

Music. Based upon emotion. 

Poetry. Based upon laws of expression and nervous 
action. 

The artist must understand the laws of the phenom- 
ena which he represents. 

Appreciation of art depends similarly upon a knowl- 
edge of the laws of the phenomena, which are repre- 
sented. Additional pleasure is given by such knowl- 
edge. 

Science itself is poetic. Poetry in a drop of water, 
if properly appreciated and understood. Educated 
mind sees more and appreciates more. 

(In all of the five leading activities, science is the 
most important study. Fine arts, belles-letters, etc., 
occupy the leisure part of life, and so should occupy 
the leisure part of education.) 



Guidance and Discipline 

Education for guidance is also the best for dis- 
cipline. 

Memory is exercised by the facts of science. Con- 
nections in science are causal, and not arbitrary as in 
language. 

Judgment is cultivated by science. Knowledge of 
phenomena and of the way in which they depend upon 
one another leads to good judgment. 

Moral discipline. Grammatical rules and dictionary 
meanings result in dogmatic teaching and suppression 
of individual judgment. 

Science appeals to individual reason. It requires 
patient industry and study of facts. 

Science is religious since it creates a respect for and 
a faith in the uniform laws which underlie all things. 



32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

II. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 
Old Practices 

1. Learning by rote, e. g., mechanical ways of teach- 
ing, memorising of tables, dates, etc., repetition with- 
out meaning, and the like. 

2. Teaching by rules. Giving the net product of in- 
quiry without the inquiry that leads to it. Giving gen- 
erals without particulars, and before them. 

3. Teaching of grammar. Grammar should come 
after language and not before it. 



New Practices 

1. Culture of the power of observation. Education 
of the senses. 

2. Presentation of things in the concrete. Actual 
yard, pound, gallon, etc., in arithmetic, models in geog- 
raphy, etc. 

3. Pleasurable acquisition of knowledge. Value of 
play, nursery rhymes, fairy tales, excursions, variety, 
etc. 

"Education must conform to the natural process of 
evolution. There is a certain sequence in which the 
faculties spontaneously develop, and a certain kind of 
knowledge which each requires during its develop- 
ment. It is for us to ascertain this sequence and supply 
this knowledge." 



General Principles 

1. Proceed from the simple to the complex. Begin 
with few subjects at once and successively adding to 
these finally carry on all subjects abreast. 

2. Proceed from the concrete to the abstract. 

3. Education of the child must accord both in mode 
and arrangement with the education of man considered 
historically. Inquiry into the history of civilisation 
will be necessary. 

4. Proceed from the empirical to the rational. 
Everything should have a purely experimental intro- 
duction. Reasoning should follow after an ample fund 
of observations has been accumulated. 



SPENCER 33 

5. Self-development should be encouraged to the 
fullest extent. Children should be led to make their 
own observations and to draw their own conclusions. 
They should be told as little as possible and induced to 
discover as much as possible. 

6. As a final test by which to judge any plan of cul- 
ture should come the question: Does it create a pleas- 
urable excitement in the pupils? Healthful action is 
always pleasurable. 

7. Education should begin from the cradle. 



General Method 

1. Culture of the senses. Begin with vivid impres- 
sions, due to resistance, sound and light. Supply ob- 
jects which present different degrees and kinds of 
resistance, different qualities of light, and a sufficiency 
of sounds. 

2. Object lessons. Show sympathy with the efforts 
of the child to discover, explore, name, express him- 
self, etc. Object lessons should include the contents 
of the home, the fields and hedges, the quarry and the 
seashore. They should continue through childhood 
and youth. 

3. Drawing. Spontaneous efforts made by the child 
to represent men, houses, trees, and animals should be 
respected. Things which are large and attractive 
should be drawn first. Color used in the beginning. 
No formal lessons at first, no copies, or drawings of 
straight, curved, or compound lines. 

Perspective taught by observation through a vertical 
plate glass. Trace lines of the object as seen through 
the glass 

4. Geometry. Cutting of cardboard for card houses, 
drawing designs for color work, use of cubes in arith- 
metic, etc., give elementary conceptions in geometry. 

Give interesting and concrete problems, as, bisecting 
of a line, erecting a perpendicular, describing a square, 
bisecting an angle, etc. 



34 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Two Basic Principles 

1. Process should be one of self -development. This 
secures vividness and permanence of impressions. 
What the pupil has acquired himself yields excitement 
consequent upon success and a basis for further ac- 
quisition, and gives him a feeling of confidence in him- 
self. 

2. The mental action induced should be intrinsically 
grateful. Pleasurable acquisition results in retention, 
concentration, interest, and desire to study further. 



III. MORAL EDUCATION 
Discipline of Consequences 

Laws of nature 

1. Misconduct is followed by pain. 

2. Reaction is inevitable. 

3. Reactions are proportionate to the degree in 
which the organic laws have been transgressed, 
e. g., a slight accident, a slight pain. 

4. Natural reactions are constant, direct, unhes- 
itating, and not to be escaped. No threats, but a 
silent, rigorous performance. If a child runs a pin 
into its finger, pain follows. 

5. Natural reactions hold in social and industrial 
life. An avaricious tradesman loses his customers, 
a careless doctor his patients. 

Illustrations 

Child who makes a litter is made to collect things 
and clean up. If he refuses he is not allowed to use 
them again, is deprived of the toys he left on the 
floor, etc. 

Child who is not ready for a walk is left behind. 

Child who breaks a toy or loses a penknife is forced 
to go without it. 
Results 

1. Right conception of cause and effect are formed. 

2. Pure justice is applied. 

3. No personal anger or ruffled feelings. 

4. Parental and filial relations are apt to be more 
friendly. 



SPENCER 35 

Grave oii'ences. Forcible prevention is called for if 
the consequence is too dangerous, as in risk of broken 
limbs, playing with open razor, etc. (N. 13. Rousseau. 
not Spencer, applies discipline of consequences to ex- 
treme). 

Practical rules 

1. Do not expect from the child any great amount 
of moral goodness. 

2. Do not set up high standards for juvenile good 
conduct. 

3. Be content with moderate measures and mod- 
erate results. 

4. Leave the children, wherever you can, to the 
discipline of consequences. 

5. Do not, however, behave as an utterly passion- 
less instrument, as your approbation and disappro- 
bation is also a natural consequence. 

6. Be sparing of commands. 

7. Remember that your aim is to produce a self- 
governing being, not a being to be governed by others. 

8. Do not regret the exhibition of considerable 
self-will on the part of your children. 

9. Remember that to educate rightly is not a sim- 
ple and easy thing, but a complex and extremely dif- 
ficult thing. 

IV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
General Directions 

1. Do not limit the quantity of food. Follow the ap- 
petite of the children. 

2. Diet of children should be far more nutritious 
than that of adults. The child grows fast, exercises a 
great deal, and loses heat rapidly. 

3. Give mixture of foods, as bread, meat, vegetables, 
etc. Allow of variety. 

4. Clothe children properly. Hardening of children 
is a fallacy. "Children are not infrequently hardened 
out of the world." Protect the body from an abiding 
sense of cold. 

5 : Allow exercise. Break the morning and afternoon 
lessons by a few minutes' open air exercise and recrea- 
tion. This applies to girls as well as to boys. 

6. Avoid excessive study as this hinders growth. 



36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ROUSSEAU 
Periods of Education 

1. Infancy. General principles 

Nature is good. 

Education is derived from nature, man and 

things. 
Natural man is complete in himself. 
Education begins at birth. 
'To live is the trade I wish to teach him.' 
'The only habit which the child is to form is 

to contract no habits whatever.' 
There should be no swaddling clothes. 
The mother should be the nurse. 
There should be a hardening process. Bathe the 

child frequently, in winter and summer. 
Crying spells due to obstinacy or habit are not 

to be heeded. 
Distinct articulation should be insisted on in the 

nurse. 
The child should have a tutor. The tutor should 

be young and wise. 
The poor need no education. 

2. Childhood, 5 to 12. Physical education. Instruc- 

tion through experience, by means of senses. 
(Child — one who can speak). 
Physical education 
Hardening process 

No head dress should be worn. 
Scanty dresses worn in cold weather. 
The child should run barefoot. 
He should be allowed full freedom. 
Discipline of consequences 

If he bumps himself let him suffer. 
If the window is open, let him catch cold. 
If he oversleeps himself, let him stay at 
home and miss his trip. 
Exercise 

Play and games. 
Climbing trees. 
Scaling rocks. 
Leaping over brooks. 
Running, with cakes as prizes. 



ROUSSEAU 37 

Experience with things. Observation 

The child has no reason and hence can not con- 
ceive moral duties. 

There should be no real memory work, no verbal 
repetition, no books, no learning by heart. 

Reading because of interest. (Note and letter 
device). 

Geometry and drawing empirical. 

Speech, simple clear, distinct. 
Education at first negative. It should not teach 

virtue and truth, but should shield the heart 

from vice and the mind from error. 

3. Boyhood, 12 to 15. Intellectual education. Pass- 

age from sensations to ideas. 
Geography 

The home surroundings should be explained first, 
and then the surrounding neighborhood. 

Rising of the sun, etc., should be shown. In the 
Montmorency episode, Emile was taught direc- 
tion, by having to find his way out of the 
woods. Simple maps. 

Science 

Actual observation and experiment. The child 
should make simple instruments himself. 
Beading 

Robinson Crusoe (a model of a man in nature 
and away from civilisation). 
Trade 

Child should learn a trade. Connect ideas with 
manual work. Cabinet making and carpentry. 
Make the child a thinking and an active being. 
Interest 

Interest should be the motive of instruction. 
' What is this good for ? ' should be the criterion. 

4. Youth, 15 to 20. Moral and religious education. 

The previous education was with things. The 
present is with men. 

Sympathy and pity 

Show Emile the misery in the world and let him 
know it may be his own. 



38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

History 

This should introduce him to a study of men. 
Show him goodness and justice in the concrete. 
Time for fables. Let him discover the moral 

himself. 
'At the age of fifteen he did not know that he 

had a soul.' 
Travel 

Finish his education with travel. Interest and 

observation. 



Meaning of Nature 

1. Return to simplicity. Encourage desire to study, 
and interest in the study. Do away with useless devices 
in instruction, as maps, charts, books, etc. 

2. Return to reality. Present things before symbols. 

3. Personal experience is to be emphasised rather 
than authority. Individualism. 

4. Original nature versus ideal nature. Original 
nature is what is given in all its crudity. Ideal nature 
is the result of education, training, culture, etc. The 
one is only a basis on which the other is to be con- 
sidered. Original nature in itself can result only in 
illiteracy, ignorance and a low state of morality. 



Objections to Rousseau 
1. Moral. The use of brute force as the sole means 
of education is dehumanising. 

Use of self-interest as a motive is immoral. 

Reason and conscience are denied the child. 

Discipline is a system of espionage. 

Discipline of consequences is prudential and not 
moral. 

A moral act requires intention. It implies right 
action under a sense of duty. This is im- 
possible because of dependence on the tutor. 

Social influences are necessary to develop the 
ideas of right and wrong. 

The child is to feel only present pleasure. 

Morality can not be put off till the fifteenth 
vear. 



ROUSSEAU 39 

2. Nature as conceived by Rousseau is an abstraction. 

Culture is not incompatible with virtue. 
Robinson Crusoe really had all the results of 
civilisation to help him on his desert isle. 

3. Exclusiveness. The poor are not cared for. 

4. Impracticability . Sufficient tutors are not avail- 

able. Nor are there enough desert isles to go 
round. 



Some Results of Rousseau's Emile 

1. Natural interests and instincts are recognised as 
the basis for instruction. 

2. Education is conceived as a process, the process 
of living, which is to continue from birth through man- 
hood. 

3. The educational machinery is simplified. Artificial 
features are cut away. Sense experience is appealed to. 
Geography is taught in the woods and fields and at 
home. 

4. The child is a positive factor in education. Sym- 
pathy is the basis of discipline. 

5. A new interpretation of nature and natural de- 

velopment. 

(1) Native instincts, power and capacities are 
developed. 

(2) Facts and phenomena of nature, and na- 
ture's laws are studied. 

(3) Individualism and individual development 
are recognised. 

Manual work and trade should be taught. 
Education is emotional and moral rather than 

intellectual. 
Formalism is opposed. 



Three Demands Responded To. 

1. Freedom of movement from the time of birth. 

2. Direct experience as the basis of instruction. No 
verbal learning. 

3. Use of the hands in the production of useful arti- 
cles. Manual work. 



40 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Characteristics of the Illumination 

1. Observation of form and ceremony. 

2. Atheistic and sceptical. Supreme faith in reason 
and in the individual. 

3. Freedom of thought, liberty of conscience, suf- 
ficiency of reason for the conduct of life. (Locke, Vol- 
taire). 

4. Rebellion against the absolutism of the Church 
and the conventions of society. Opposition to the 
authority of institutions. 



Predecessors to Rousseau 

'Rabelais, Montaigne, Locke, Rousseau form a suc- 
cession.' 

Points of agreement between these educational 
writers. 

1. Care for a single child and consequent neglect of 
the education of the people. 

2. The degrading of learning from the first place and 
placing main stress on virtue and the formation of 
character. 

3. Importance of physical education. 

4. Condemnation of harshness, and the demand that 
the child should be made happy in his work. 

5. Condemnation of large schools. 

6. Employment of a governor or tutor who is to be 
wise rather than learned. 

7. Condemnation of instruction which inculcates, 
not, how to think, but, what to think, or simply, what 
to remember. 

8. Teaching at first hand, i. e., by the senses or by 
direct experience. 

9. Travel should be made a part of education. 

10. Games should be used for educational purposes. 

11. Some handicraft should be taught. 



EOUSSEAU 41 

BASEDOW AND THE PHILANTHROPINUM 
The Philanthropinum 

The philanthropinum was an institute founded at 
Dessau, 1774. 

Aim was to apply the principles of Rousseau. 

Principles. Everything according to nature. 
Treat children like children. 
Use the senses of the child. 
Verbal memory is to be reduced. 

Method. Language. French and Latin taught by 
familiar conversation about some objects presented. 

Word-of -command game. At direction, in Latin, by 
the teacher, boys begin to sew like tailors, shut their 
eyes, look about, etc., thus acting out the command. 

Hiding game. Some one writes the name of a part of 
a plant, animal, metal, etc., and the children try to 
guess it. The successful one gets an apple or a piece of 
cake. 

Imitation by the children of noises of different ani- 
mals, at the command of the teacher. 

Arithmetic. Viva Voce method. 

Drawing. Pupils guide the teacher as he draws some 
animal, and correct him as he pretends to go wrong. 

Defects. Exercises are only kindergarten exercises. 
They should be restricted to children of the kindergar- 
ten age. It was carried on beyond the proper age and 
grade, and failed to keep pace with the child's develop- 
ment. 



42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

RABELAIS 
Educational Satire 

Grandgousicr appoints Tubal Holofernes the tutor 
of Gargantua. He wastes his time teaching him A, B, 
C, writing, and empty scholastic writers. 

Then Gargantua was placed under Jobelin Bride, 
who continued along the same lines. Grandgousier 
found that his son was becoming 'a sot, a dolt, a fool, 
and a blackguard.' 

He complains to Philip of Marays. Philip brings in 
his page Eudemon, who is well conducted, well man- 
nered, and of proper speech. Ponocrates, the tutor of 
Eudemon, is given charge of Gargantua. 

Reforms of Ponocrates 

Ponocrates finds that Gargantua does little studying, 
and eats, sleeps and drinks too much. He proceeds 
slowly in his reforms, because 'Nature can not endure 
a sudden change without great violence.' He spends 
the day with Gargantua as follows : 

Daybreak 

He woke Gargantua at 'four, read Scriptures to him, 
and expounded the most difficult points. The lessons 
of the day were repeated to him, while he was being 
dressed, combed, etc. Then lectures for three hours 
were given. After this exercise was taken in the field 
at tennis or ball. 

Dinner 

During dinner they read history, and discussed the 
viands, etc., referring to appropriate sentences in the 
classics, and talked over the lessons finished in the 
morning, and finished with a hymn of thanks. 

After dinner they played with cards to learn tricks 
grounded on arithmetic. Geometry, astronomy, and 
arithmetic were learned by making pretty instruments, 
geometrical designs, etc. Gargantua then studied three 
hours, repeated the morning lecture, and practised 
writing, draAving, antique and Roman letters. Outdoor 
exercise followed: riding, fencing, hunting, wrestling, 
skipping ditches, springing hedges, jumping walks, 
etc. Supper followed. 



RABELAIS 43 

Supper 

The supper was large. (The dinner was just large 
enough to satisfy hunger). At supper they discoursed 
learnedly and profitably, and finished by giving thanks. 

Supper was followed by music, or sports with cards 
or dice. The fields were visited to observe the sky, 
stars, comets, etc., during which time they recapitu- 
lated the work done during the day. They ended with 
prayer and went to bed. 
Rainy days 

On rainy days the forenoon was spent in the same 
manner as usual. In the afternoon Gargantua was ex- 
ercised by bottling hay, cleaving and sawing wood, 
threshing sheaves of corn, etc. Then he studied the 
art of painting or carving. They went to see the draw- 
ing of metals, goldsmiths at work, alchemists, uphol- 
sterers, weavers, framers, etc., 'to learn and consider 
the industry and invention of the trades.' They went 
also to public lectures, lawyers' pleadings, sermons, 
etc., to fencing halls, shows, etc. 

Learning, at first difficult, 'became, a little after, so 
sweet, easy, and so delightful, that it seemed rather 
the recreation of a king, than the study of a scholar.' 



Advice of Gargantua to His Son Pantagruel by Letter 

Proceed from good to better. 

Become 'completely well-bred and accomplished, as 
well in virtue, honesty and valor, as in all liberal 
knowledge and civility.' 

Learn the languages, first Greek, then Latin, then 
Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic; also the liberal arts, 
history, civil law, and philosophy. 

Learn the works of nature, the seas, rivers, trees, fish, 
fowls, metals, etc. 

Study the Holy Scriptures. 'Let me see thee an 
abyss and bottomless pit of knowledge. ' 

Practice exercise, chivalry, and warfare. 

Haunt the company of learned men. 'Be service- 
able to thy neighbors.' 'Reverence thy preceptors, 
shun the conversation of those whom thou desirest 
not to resemble. 



44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Principles to Be Derived 

1. Physical exercise and gymnastics should be taken. 

2. Virtue, breeding and character should be cared 
for. 

3. Learning should be made sweet, easy and delight- 
ful. 

4. There should be nature study and "experiments 
with objects. 

5. A wise tutor should be chosen. 

6. Games, etc., should be used in instruction. 

7. The pupil should learn a trade. 

8. Verbal disputation and memory and scholastic dis- 
cussion are useless. 

9. Good company should be sought. 



MONTAIGNE 
Aim of Educatidh* * * r * -**•'**» 

To breed a complete gentleman. 

' 'Tis not the soul, 'tis not a body we are training, 
but a man, and we ought not to divide him.' 

'He is not a gentleman, sir, he is a grammarian, and 
I am a logician.' 



Education 

1. Physical. The boy is to be inured to t toil and 
vehement exercise, labor, etc. He should exercise in 
running, wrestling, music, dancing, hunting, riding. 

2. Moral. Virtue and good manners should be taught. 
Practical philosophy, cheerfulness and tranquil wis- 
dom should be emphasised. 

In company the pupil should show modesty, silence, 
no vanity, and no interruption. He should submit to 
the truth. He should carefully observe others. There 
should be emulation of the good and contempt for the 
bad. 

3. Instruction. Teaching should be based on direct 
experience with things. Words are to be understood. 
There should be no bookish learning. Conscience and 
virtue are to be taught. Reason should be used as a 
guide. 



LOCKE 45 

History. Study great characters, manners, cus- 
toms, and try to understand reasons. 

Language. Mother tongue should be taught and 
then allied modern languages. Latin and Greek are 
purely ornamental. Latin should be taught by speak- 
ing it. 

Travel. Study the humors, manners, customs and 
laws of men. 

Method. 'Severe sweetness.' 'Away with this 
violence, away with this compulsion.' Discourse and 
reading with the pupil. Conscience and understand- 
ing rather than memory. 

4. Tutor. He should be an accomplished cavalier 
and fine gentleman, rather than learned. He should 
have manners and judgment before wide reading. He 
should correct the pupil if wrong, and allow him to ex- 
perience things for himself. 



LOCKE 

Aim of Education 
A sound mind in a sound body. 



Physical Education 

1. Harden children to heat and cold. Wash the body 
and feet in cold water. Let the child learn swimming 
and lead an open-air life. 

2. Diet. Give the child little meat, spice or sugar, but 
much brown bread. Let the meals be irregular. Let the 
drink be small beer but no strong liquor. Ripe fruit is 
good. 

3. Sleep. Eight hours sleep is necessary. The child 
should be waked gently. There should be little or no 
physic. 



Habits (Formation of Character) 

1. Keep children to practice by kind words, gentle 
admonitions, etc., rather than by harsh rebukes. 

2. Endeavor not to settle too many habits at once, 
lest by variety you confound. 

"The foundation of all virtue and worth is placed in 
this: That a man is able to deny himself his own de- 



46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

sires, cross his own inclinations, and purely follow what 
reason directs as best, though the appetite lean the other 
way. ' ' 

(Physical habits should be formed as above sug- 
gested). 



Four Requisites of a Gentleman 

1. Virtue. 3. Breeding. 

2. Wisdom. 4. Learning. 



Virtue 

1. Possess the proper religious ideas. 

2. Preserve the mind from notions of spirits, goblins, 
fearful apprehensions in the dark, etc. 

3. Form the habit of exactly speaking the truth. 

4. Develop good nature. Injustice generally springs 
from too great love of ourselves and too little of others. 



Wisdom 

Wisdom is a man's managing his business ably and 
with foresight in the world and is the product of a 
natural good temper, application of mind, and experi- 
ence. It is thefore above children. 

Preparation for wisdom is possible by 

(1) Prevention of cunning, tricks, and circum- 

vention. 

(2) Truth and sincerity. 

(3) Submission to reason and reflection on one's 

own actions. 



Breeding 

The opposites to good breeding are roughness, con- 
tempt or want of respect, censoriousness or fault-find- 
ing, raillery, contradiction, captiousness, excess of cere- 
mony, interruption, and dispute. 

Good company influences breeding. 



LOCKE . 47 

Learning 

1. Beading. The alphabet is to be learned through 
play. Use of an ivory ball with letters pasted on. Child 
should play with this as with dice. 

2. Writing. First, hold the pen properly. In black 
ink, go over letters printed in red ink. The letters 
should be large at first, and then smaller. 

3. Drawing should emphasise perspective and skill. 

4. Language. English should be taught first, then 
French, then Latin. Latin should be taught like Eng- 
lish, by speech and without grammar. Translate by 
writing the English version over the Latin. There 
should be no themes on abstract subjects, no construing, 
no versifying, and not much learning by heart. 

5. Geography. Use the globe. 

6. Other subjects to be taught: arithmetic, geometry, 
astronomy, chronology, history, ethics, civil law, law, 
rhetoric, logic, style, natural philosophy, dancing, fenc- 
ing, riding and music. No Greek is to be given. 

7. Travel. Education should end with travel. 

8. Trade. Pupil should learn a trade. Gardening or 
husbandry, carpentry; also varnishing, graving, work- 
ing in iron, brass, silver, polishing precious stones, etc.; 
merchants' accounts. 



Tutor 

1. Qualifications. He should be well bred, as breed- 
ing is acquired only in good company. He should know 
the ways of the world and should inform the pupil 
gradually of the vices and of the evil ways of men. He 
should teach prudence. 

The tutor should possess sobriety, temperance, ten- 
derness, diligence and discretion. He should be discreet, 
sober wise. 

2. Duties. He should fashion the carriage and form 
the mind of his pupil. 

He should settle good habits and the principles of 

virtue and wisdom. 
He should instil the love of what is excellent and 

praiseworthy. 
He should develop vigor, activity and industry. 



48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The studies which are to be set are merely exercises 
of the faculties and employments of time to keep the 
pupil from sauntering and idleness. They are to teach 
him application and painstaking, and to give him a taste 
of what his own industry must perfect. 



Discipline 

1. To be avoided 

Punishments, beating, chiding, rewards (nattering of 
the appetite), and tasks. 

2. To be followed 

Esteem and disgrace, few rules, 'Repeated practice, 
and the same action done over and over again, under 
the eye and direction of the tutor till they have got the 
habit of doing it well.' Good company and example. 



COMENIUS 

Aim and Scope of Education 

Life is a preparation for eternity. 

The three steps in this preparation are : 

1. Knowledge. Man should know all things. 

2. Virtue. He should have power over all things 

and over himself. 

3. Piety. He should refer himself and all things 

to God, the Source of all. 

Nature gives the seeds of knowledge, virtue and 
piety, but education must develop them. 

Education must begin when the mind is tender and 
soft. 

There should be schools in all parts of the empire 
and for all the youth of all sexes alike. There should be 
popular education. 

The school is a place where 

1. Minds are instructed in wisdom to penetrate 

all things. 

2. Souls and their affections are guided to a uni- 

versal harmony of the virtues. 



COMENIUS 49 

3. Hearts are allured to divine love. 
The means are 

1. Lengthening of life by the best use of life and 

care of health. 

2. Shortening of methods. 

3. Seizing of opportunities so as to learn surely. 

4. Enlarging the powers of perception to learn 

easily. 

5. Laying a sure and immovable foundation to 

learn solidly. 



Art of Education — Method Applied to Education 

One teacher for a class of 100 means 

1. Class divided into sections, each section of 10 

under an inspector. 

2. Whole class taught at once and together. 
Attention is secured 

1. By presenting matter agreeable and profitable. 

2. By preparing pupils' minds by questions, etc. 

3. By standing in an elevated position, and re- 

quiring all eyes fixed upon the teacher. 

4. By presenting things to the senses. 

5. By throwing out frequent questions. 

6. By passing on a question without repeating it, 

if it is missed. 

7. By putting the question to the class and prais- 

ing him who first answers. 

8. By allowing pupils to ask questions when the 

lesson is finished. 

The same book is used in a class. The book is in the 
form of dialogue. 

The pupils do the same thing at the same time. The 
teacher should arrange a proper schedule and program. 

There should be uniformity in method. 

Teach fundamental things. Properly word all rules. 
Few words should be used. 

Teach two or three things in connection and at the 
same time, e. g., words with things, reading with writ- 
ing, etc. 



50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Proceed step by step. 

Remove the causes of retardation by a wise neglect 
of unnecessary knowledge, of unnecessary things alien 
to a pupil's nature, and by not going too much into 
detail. 



Method of Teaching 

Basic principles 

1. Follow nature. 

2. Uniformity in all things 

3. Continuity, sequence, and serial order 

4. Practice (expression), and sense impression 

5. Popular and complete education. Pansophy. 

Encyclopedic training. 

General method 

1. Learn to do by doing. 

2. Present to as many senses as possible. 

3. Things before words 

4. One thing at a time and in proper sequence 

5. Understanding before memory 

Science 

1. Present things before words. 

2. Things of use around us the basis of instruction. 

3. The whole and then its parts taught success- 

ively. 

4. Present to as many senses as possible. 

5. Give the causes of the thing. 

Arts 

1. Things to be done learned by doing them. 

2. Examples, forms, norms to be presented. 

3. Imitation at first to be as close to the model as 

possible. Later more freedom to be allowed. 

4. Errors to be corrected on the spot. Rules and 

directions should be given. 

5. Exercise and practice are to be continued till 

the habit of art has been obtained. 

Language 

1. First the vernacular; then the neighboring 
tongues; then Latin 



COMENIUS 51 

2. Language is learned rather by practice than by 

precept 

3. Precept is to aid and strengthen practice. 

4. Uniformity of method is to be followed in all 

tongues. 

5. The first exercises in a new tongue should be 
about known subjects. 

Morality 

1. All the virtues are to be implanted in youth. 

2. Virtues are to be learned by doing them. 

3. Bad companions are to be avoided. 

4. Example and precept as of parents, teacher, 

school fellows, etc. 

5. The means of discipline should be reproof and 

punishment. 

Piety 

1. Begin in infancy. 

2. Devotion is to be expressed by the proper at- 

titude. 

3. There should be practice in the doing of virtues. 

4. There should be meditation, prayer, self-exam- 

ination. 

5. The pagan authors should be used with caution. 



School Management and Discipline 

There should be properly graded classes. The class 
should be under a single teacher. 

Studies should be properly graded with a solid 
foundation. 

There should be uniformity in school books, methods, 
etc., and continuity in instruction, programs, sched- 
ules, etc. 

The desire for learning should be stirred up in 
pupils : 

1. Parents must praise learning and learned men. 

2. The teacher must be kind and fatherly. He 

must praise, reward, and present pleasurable 
objects in his instruction. 

3. The school building must be light, airy, and 

pleasant. 



52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

4. Subjects must be pleasant and adapted to the 

learner. 

5. Method must be natural. There should be ex- 

aminations and rewards. 
Discipline should be severe only where morals are 
concerned. 

Discipline 

1. End of discipline is not the punishment of 

transgressors, but the prevention of a recur- 
rence of the fault. 

2. Matter of discipline. Only morals, and not 

studies are concerned. 

3. Method of discipline 

(1) Example of the teacher 

(2) Words of instruction, exhortation and re- 
proof 

(3) Where gentler methods fail, extreme meth- 
ods are to be used. 



Practical Hints for the Teacher 

1. Let the teacher not teach as much as he is able to, 
but as much as the pupil is able to learn. 

2. Whatever the teacher wishes the pupils to do, let 
him himself point out the way by himself doing it. 

3. Let not the pupils be overburdened by a mass of 
things. 

4. Teach things together. Objects and words, read- 
ing, writing and speaking, should be taught together. 

5. Never dismiss any subject which has been begun 
till it is thoroughly finished. Things should be accurate 
and firmly fixed. A solid foundation should be laid. 



School System 

1. School of infancy. There should be a mother's 
school in every house. The elements of all the arts and 
sciences should be taught through the external senses, 
by play, constructions, etc. Bodily health should be a 
prime object. 

2. Vernacular school. There should be a vernacular 
school in every parish. The inner senses, imagination, 



RATICH 53 

and memory should be cultivated. The subjects should 
be, reading, writing, drawing, singing, counting, meas- 
uring, weighing, and learning by heart, geography and 
Scripture. 

There should be six classes (six-year course) and four 
hours daily. In the morning the lessons should exercise 
the memory and the understanding. In the afternoon 
the voice and hand should be exercised. Nothing new is 
to be attempted in the afternoon. 

3. Latin school or gymnasium in every large town. 
The understanding and the judgment are to be de- 
veloped. The subjects are to be the seven liberal arts, 
physics, geography, chronology, history, ethics, and the- 
ology. The school is for boys who are to be trained for 
positions higher than artisans. 

4. University in every country or large province. De- 
velopment of the will and the reduction of the mind to 
harmony are to be aimed at. The subjects are to be the- 
ology, mental philosophy, medicine, and jurisprudence. 
Authors of every kind are to be studied. 

Each school is to have a six years' course. 



RATKE OR RATICH 

Method in Language 

Vernacidar 

Genesis read by the teacher twice to the class, the 
children following with eye and finger. (After 
they know their letters). 

Teacher read about four lines, the children read- 
ing after, and so on through the book. 

Children then read the book without assistance. 

Grammar finally taken up after these readings. 

Latin 

A play of Terence used 

Substance of the play gotten either by reading a 

translation, or by the teacher's explanation 
Translation by the teacher, word for word, twice 
Boys begin to translate, aided by the teacher. 



54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

At the fourth translation, the boys use grammar 

before them. 
Further analysis of the author. 

Aims 

1. Easy learning of Hebrew, Greek, Latin and 

other languages 

2. Establishment of schools in which the arts and 

sciences may be taught and propagated. 

3. Introduction and preservation of a uniform 

language, a uniform government, and a uni- 
form religion throughout the whole empire. 

General principles 

1. Everything according to nature 

2. One thing at a time 

3. In language one author thoroughly studied; 

from him language should be taught 

4. One thing often repeated 

5. Everything first in the mother tongue 

6. Everything without compulsion 

No whipping 

Love and reverence for the teacher 

7. Nothing learned by heart. Understanding to be 

used. 

8. Unity in all things, in method, in books used, 

precepts given, etc. Parallel grammars in 
German, Hebrew, Greek, etc. 

9. First the thing itself, and then the way of the 

thing. Material before rules 
10. Everything by experience and investigation of 
parts. Induction and experiment. 



MILTON 

Tractate on Education 

"The end of learning is to repair the ruins of our 
first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out 
of that knowledge, to love him, to imitate him, to be like 
him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of 
true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace 
of faith, makes up the highest perfection.' 



MILTON 55 

"I call, therefore, a complete and generous education 
that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and 
magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, 
of peace and war." 



The Academy 

150 pupils, 20 attendants, 1 head. School and uni- 
versity combined 

Studies (12 to 21 years of the pupil's life). 

Latin and Latin classics. Later, Greek morals in 

Plutarch, Quintillian. 
Agriculture in Cato, Yarro 
Geography by globes and maps. 
Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy 
Fortification, architecture, navigation 
Natural philosophy, minerals, plants, animals 
Poetry, Orpheus, Hesiod, Theocritus, Virgil 
Economics, tragedy, politics 
Law, Moses, Lycurgus, Solon. Justinian, Saxon and 

common law 
Theology, Scriptures. Hebrew 
Orations, Cicero, Demosthenes 
Logic, rhetoric, Plato, Aristotle 

Exercise 

Fencing, wrestling, war exercises in marching and 

on horse 
Explorations of the surrounding country 
Travel at 23 or 24 

Diet 

Plain, healthful, moderate 

General 

Learning based on things of the sense 

No themes, verses or orations 

No verbal study. Words based on 'the solid things 
in them.' 
(See Johnson's criticism of the course of study, in his 

essay on Milton) 



56 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ASCHAM 
The Schoolmaster 

General purpose 

1. A method of learning Latin 

2. A protest against harsh methods 

First Book. The Bringing up of youth 

First steps in Latin. Construe and parse lesson 
over and over again. 

Translate the lesson into English. 
Retranslate the English back into Latin in 

a second book. 
Much writing is to aid speaking 

General method and discipline. 'Love is better 
than fear, gentleness than beating, to bring up 
a child rightly in learning.' 

Use praise and gentleness in teaching. 
Nature is punished when slow wits are 

punished. 
Learning is to be a pastime. It is disliked 

because of the beatings, etc., in school. 
Young years are the aptest in learning. 
Good company and council. Domestic dis- 
cipline. Keep the child from what is ill, 
rather than teach what is good. Good ex- 
ample important 

Second Book. The ready way to the Latin tongue 
Translation. Cicero, Terence, Caesar, Livy 
Teacher translates the lesson into English and 
give to pupils to render in Latin. Compare 
with the original. Also write a letter and give 
pupil to translate into Latin. 

Method criticised 
Translation 

Paraphrase, not good. Models are spoiled. 
Metaphrase same as paraphrase, save that it 

is from prose to verse, or verse to prose. 

Not good 

Epitome not to be used, except where the 
original is too full. 



JACOTOT 57 

Imitation. All language is gotten only by 

imitation. Best models to be used in 
poetry, history, philosophy, oratory. 



JACOTOT 
Paradoxes 

1. 'All human beings are equally capable of learn- 
ing. ' When there is a will there is a way. 

2. 'Everyone can teach; and, moreover, can teach 
that which he does not know himself.' The pupil must 
help himself to learn. All he needs are the materials. 
The teacher, however, must direct, and hence must 
know his subject. 

3. 'All is in all.' The pupil must learn one thing 
thoroughly, and must refer everything to that. 

Jacotot made his pupils learn six books of Fenelon's 
Telemaque by heart. The text was recited on twice a 
week, and exercises of all sorts constructed on it. 



Steps in Jacotot 's Method 

1. Learn some characteristic thing thoroughly. 

2. Repeat that something incessantly so that it will 
never be forgotten. 

3. Reflect over what has been learned. Let it be 
appreciated and understood so well that other parts may 
be referred to it. 

4. Verify by comparison with what you have learned, 
any rules, expressions, etc., across which you may come. 



II 

GBEEK EDUCATION 
Old Greek Education 

Aim. To train the individual for the city, state. 
Valor (Sparta) Wisdom (Athens) 'A speaker of 
words and a doer of deeds.' 

Virtues cultivated 

Modesty Reverence Purity 

Hardihood Strength Sociability 

Patriotism 

Spartan Education. 

Aim. Strength, physical endurance, complete sub- 
ordination to the state. 
Self-sacrifice, justice, honor, patriotism. 

Means in general. Rigorous gymnastics, music, 
dancing, military drill. 

Childhood, 1 to 7 
Exposure of weak children. Home education by 
games, play, myths. 

Boyhood, 7 to 18 

Gymnastics, music, choric dancing (larceny). 
Barracks, companies, etc., in public, and under 
state supervision. 

Youth, 18 to 30 (Ephebe or cadet) 

Light arms for 2 years. Later, heavy arms. 
Shooting, riding, swimming, brutal conflicts. 

Manhood, 30 (Citizen) 

War, hunting, guardianship, marriage. 

Athenian Education. 

Spartan education is public, Athenian is private. 
Sparta educates for war, Athens for peace. 

Childhood, 1 to 7 (Family education) 

Play, myths, stories. Care of the mother. 

58 



GREEK EDUCATION 59 

Boyhood, 7 to 14 (School) 

Promenade to school under the care of a peda- 
gogue. 

Music 

Poetry, Homer, Hesiod. 
Writing of verses from dictation. 
Reading, intonation, articulation. 
Music proper. Doric airs accompanied by the 
lyre or cithara. 

Gymnastics 

Leaping, running, discus throwing, javelin 
throwing, wrestling. 

Dancing, combines music and gymnastic pan- 
tomimes, and choric dances. 

Youth, 14 to 16 (College). Ephebe at 13 

Greater freedom. Public instruction. Gym- 
nastics more violent. Training for cit- 
izenship by discourse with older men. 
18. Ephebe or cadet. First year, drill m 
arms. Second year, frontier duty 

Citizens, 20 (University) 

Public service and military duty 



New Greek Education 

Individualism and philosophy prominent 

Causes 

1. Increase in commerce t 

2. Increasing influence of the commercial classes. 

Rights of citizenship granted to the com- 
mercial classes 

3. Influx of foreign men, ideas, and habits and of 

foreign gods, which broke up conservatism 

4. Teaching of the Sophists: 'Man is the measure 

of all things.' 
Results 

1. Increased attention to literature on its formal 
side 



60 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. New writers substituted for the old epic and 

lyric poets 

3. New and complicated kinds of music 

4. Relaxation of moral and physical discipline 
Aim 

1. Individual happiness 

2. Moral sanction in the individual and not in the 

state 
Socrates 

1. 'Know thyself.' 

2. Socratic questioning 

(1) Mental midwifery and (2) Socratic irony 

3. Virtue is knowledge 



Xenophon 

Attempt to return to Spartan civic training 
A freeman's square, in four parts, one for boys, one 
for youths (ephebes), one for mature men, and one 
for men beyond the military age. 
Boyhood. Learn justice, obedience, and self discip- 
line in eating and drinking. 
Cadet. Hunting, contests, guard duty. 
Manhood. Public service and military duty. 
Elders. Judges. Choose officials. 
Note. The scheme is purly political. 
There is no education for women. 
Nothing is said of intellectual training. Empha- 
sis is on conduct. 



Plato— The Republic 

Evils to be removed are 

1. Defective education of children. 

2. Neglect of women. 

3. Disorganisation of the state through excessive 

individualism. 



GREEK EDUCATION 



61 



State is the individual writ large 
Faculties 

Intellect Spirit 



Reason 

in 
Head 

I 
Philosophers 

I 
Prudence 

Virtues 



Courage 

in 
Heart 



Desire 

Appetite 

in 
Abdomen 



Warriors Money-making class 



Courage 



Temperance 



1. Prudence. Reason rules the whole man. 

2. Fortitude. Spirit takes its directions from the 

reason in its attitude towards pleasure and 
pain. 

3. Temperance. Spirit and appetite come to 
agreement with reason as to when each shall 
act. 

4. Justice. Each confines itself to its proper 

sphere. 

Education is nurture 
Demands 

1. A noble nature 

2. Training through habit 

3. Instruction 

Means of securing these 

1. Selection of parents 

2. Music and gymnastics 

3. Philosophy 
Periods of instruction 

State control at birth 

3. Story telling 

7. Gymnastics 

10. Letters and music 

16. Mathematics 

18. Military drill 

20. Selection for the soldier class 



62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

20-30. Novices in the ruling class. Study of 
science, including arithmetic, geometry and 
astronomy. 
30-35. Dialectic and rise to pure ideas. 
35-50. Higher public officers. Attainment of 
supreme good. 
General 

Homer is proscribed. Only manly music, as Dorian 
and Phrygian is permitted. Lydian and Ionian 
airs are prohibited. No effeminate poetry is 
allowed. 



The Republic and the Laws Compared 

Republic Laws 

Moral sanction in the pure Moral sanction in the pop- 
intellect of the philoso- ular consciousness, its 

laws, its gods, ethical 
notions and traditions as 



pher. 



No family. embodied in institutions. 

Family regulated by the 
No strangers nor poets. state 

Philosophical training for Strangers and poets _ sub- 

ject to state supervision, 
rulers. Practical insight for rulers. 

Philosophers, warriors, and Freemen and slaves, 
workers. Home training till the sev- 

enth year. 
No home training. No dialectic. 



Aristotle 

Man has soul and reason. 

The highest object is perfect happiness or virtue, the 
activity of reason, a life of contemplation. 

Order of education 

1. Bodily. 2. Moral. 3. Scientific. 
Periods of education . 
Childhood, 1 to 7 

Family training. 

Proper moral conversation and examples. 

Play. 



GREEK EDUCATION 63 

Boyhood, 7 to puberty 

Physical training, dancing and deportment. 

Gymnastics. Running, leaping, javelin cast- 
ing, discus throwing. 

(Physical training and gymnastics form the 
practical part of education) . 

Creative. Music and drawing. 

Theoretic. Grammar, dialetic and rhetoric. 

(Creative and theoretic form the theoretic). 

Youth. Puberty to 21 

Gymnastics. Wrestling, shooting, marching, 

drilling, riding. 
Theoretic. Arithmetic, geometry and as- 
tronomy. 
Manhood. After 21 
Civic duties 

1. Active, practical or executive 

2. Deliberative, theoretical or legislative. 

3. Cidtured leisure 

1. Active. Civil, military, practical eth- 
ics and politics. 

2. Deliberative. Posts which require 
less practice and more insight. 

3. Contemplation of divine things. 



Aristotle and Plato Compared 

Plato Aristotle 

Theory and practice not Theory and practice unit- 
united, ed in virtue or happi- 
ness. 
Method philosophical or Method objective and sci- 

introspective. entitle. 

Ideas exist as form only. Ideas concretely embodied 

in action. 



Defects in Greek Education 

1. Views on women were oriental. 

2. Nine out of ten were denied the privileges of the 
freeman. The masses were neglected. 



64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

3. The sense of honor, loyalty and honesty was weak. 

4. Prudential rather than moral control was em- 
phasised. 

5. Sense of compassion was wanting. 

6. Infants were exposed. 

7. Versatility and insincerity were results. 



Music 

The Greek music included several things. 

1. Music and letters. 

2. Pythagoras. Letters, arithmetic, geometry, 

astronomy, music and philosophy. 

3. Aristotle. Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, arith- 

metic, geometry and astronomy. 



Seven Liberal Arts 



1. Trivium. 

Grammar. 
Dialectic. 
Rhetoric. 

2. Quadrivium 

Arithmetic 
Music. 
Geometry. 
Astronomv. 



Dialectic 

1. Philosophical. Process of forming concepts or 
categories, as, 'Appearance and reality,' 'Form and 
change,' etc. 

2. Educational. Method of dialogue tending to reach 
the formation of a general truth relating to conduct 
or life. 

3. Psychological. Formation of concepts from per- 
cepts. 



GREEK EDUCATION 65 

4. Logical. Resolution of a species into a genus, or 
the reverse. 

5. Scientific. Induction of general principles from a 
multiplicity of phenomena. 

6. Platonic. Reflection on experience, acts and phe- 
nomena of everyday life. Finding of the permanent in 
passing experience. 



\ 



> 



66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ROMAN EDUCATION 
First Period, to 300 B. C. 

Legendary and early historic. 
Aim. Honesty and prudence 

1. Careful home training by the mother. Influ- 
ence of the mother. Obedience to the father 
and fear of the gods. 

2. Laws of the Twelve Tables of Lycurgus. 
Aim. To define the laws so as to prevent 
abuses by the patricians and to place patri- 
cians and plebeians on an equality. 

3. Actual practice on the field and in the forum. 

4. General. History, biography, study of Roman 
law, actual practice. No schools. Education 
largely moral, social, military. 



Second Period, from 300 to 146 B. C. 

Schools founded. Beginning of the following di- 
visions : 

7-12. Grammatistes or literator in charge 
Reading by the syllabic method. 
Writing on a waxen tablet. 
Poets. Passages memorised. 
Calculation. Use of the fingers. (Game of 
'mora.') 
12-16. Grammaticus or literatus in charge 
Study of Greek begun. 
Poets, Virgil, Livius Andronicus, Homer. 
Prose, Cicero, Aesop. 
Tradition and history. 
Grammar. 
16. Age of manhood. {Toga virilis) (Rhetor in 
charge ) 
Occupation chosen: Agriculture, army, sen- 
ate, forum. 
Rhetoric, Greek music, assumed increasing im- 
portance in Roman life. Philosophy was 
studied. 



ROMAN EDUCATION 67 

Third Period, 146 B. C. to 100 A. D. (Approximate) 

Hellenised Roman education. Greek became a 
Roman province. 

Schools and rhetoric became better organised. 

Predominance of rhetoric. 

Travel in Greece as a finishing touch. 

Method of instruction was chiefly imitation. Instruc- 
tion was moral and practical. Hence the importance 
of imitation through the parent, biography, and 
rhetoric. 



Decadence of Roman Education 

With change to empire there was no incentive for 
oratory. Rhetoric became formal and scholastic. 

Greater luxury and laxer morals. 

Education was more intellectual. Multiplication of 
schools, writings, libraries and scholastic ideals. 



Early (To 146 B. C.) and Later (After 146 B. C.) 
Compared 

Early Later 

Education a home process. Education Hellenised. 
Aim. Full Roman citizen- Schools. 

ship. Military, civic, Aim. Rhetorical, formal 
economic, rhetorical. and literary. 

Method. Apprentice sys- Method. School supplants 
tern. Observation and the home and the for- 
direct imitation of the urn. Training gives 
master in the army, place to formal instruc- 
farm, court, or forum. tion in rhetoric. 

Survival of old forms. Home training. Tutors un- 
der the supervision of the parents. 
Morality emphasised. (Marcus Aurelius) 
Observation of the householder, soldier and public 
administrator. 



Rights of the Roman Citizen 

1. Right of the father over the children. 

2. Right of the master over slaves. 

3. Right of the husband over the wife. 



68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

4. Right of one freeman over another, if given by- 
law through contract or forfeiture. 

5. Right over property. 



Greek Education and Roman Education Compared 
Greek Roman 

Esthetic Practical. 

Speculative, intellectual. Active, volitional. 

Idealistic. Pragmatic. 

Philosophical. Rhetorical, political. 

Self-culture. Self-sacrifice. 

Epicurean. Stoic. 



Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory 
Infancy. 1-7 

Youth is teachable. Defective education the 

cause of failure. 
Good nurse, with moral character and cultivated 

speech. 
Greek before Latin. Latin soon after. 
Reading. Ivory letters 
Syllables, words, sentences. 
Writing. Following of letters cut in grooves on 

a board. 
Wax will allow of mistakes and should not be 

used. 
Memorising of selections for future use. No haste 

in teaching reading. 
Pedagogue. Man of acknowledged learning. He 

should correct the pronunciation of the 

nurse. 
Public School 

Reasons for public instruction 

Home morals may be bad. 

Emulation is possible. 

Friendships may be formed. 

Profit from the advances and the errors of 
others. 

Incitement to the study of eloquence. 

Imitation of those more advanced. 

Greater incentive to the teacher. 



ROMAN EDUCATION 69 

Duties of the teacher 

He should ascertain the dispositions and abilities 
of his pupils. Precociousness is not desirable. 

He should offer special stimulants for spe- 
cific natures, as praise, honor, fear, labor, etc. 

Relaxation and play should be allowed. 

No corporal punishment. 

1. It is servile and degrading. 

2. It generally loses its effect. 

3. No necessity for it if the master does his 
work. 

Duties of the grammaticus 

Speak correctly. 

Give illustrations of the poets. 

Teach art of writing. 

Give critical judgment in reading. 

Teach meter, rhythm, astronomy, philosophy. 
(For poetry and its allusions ) 
General directions 

Let the pupil understand what he reads. 

Let moral authors be read. 

Boys can endure much study. 
Rhetorician 

Should be moral. Let him be as a parent. 

Should have equable temper. 

Should be diligent in exacting tasks. Ready of 
reply to questions. 

Should give commendation of exercises. 

Should get love and reverence of his pupils. 

Should use living voice as an example in read- 
ing and for imitation. 
General 

Boys should not sit mixed with young men. 

The best teachers are best in small things as 
well as in great. 
Aim of education is oratory 

A bad man cannot be a perfect orator. 



70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION 

China 

National characteristics 

Domestic ideas of Chinese life 

1. Idea of order as based upon a supreme prin- 

ciple. 

2. Reverence for the past 

Superstitious regard for all past thought. 
Reverence for ancestors. Ancestor worship. 

3. Family life as the center of all social order 

and civic union. Emperor is the head. 

4. Prudential virtue usurps the place of the 

ideal and the spiritual. 

5. A love of formalism. Ritual ceremonies and 

formal ediquette 

General character 

1. Childlike, gentle, kindly. 

2. Cunning, superstitious, tricky 

3. Culture exists in the memory of the classics, 

and the power of uniting elegant verses 
and good caligraphy. 

Literature and religion 
Sacred hooks 
Five Classics 

1. Book of Changes. Nature, system, and ob- 

scure image. 

2. Book of History. 

3. Book of Odes. 

4. Book of Rites. 

5. Spring and Autumn Annals 

Four Books (Exposition and commentary) 

1. The Great Learning. 

2. The doctrine of the Mean. 

3. Confucian Analecta, or sayings of the 

master. 

4. Works of Mencius. 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION 71 

Five relationships and Five virtues 



1. 


Sovereign-subject 


1. 


Benevolence 


2. 


Parent-child 


2. 


Justice 


3. 


Husband-wife 


3. 


Order 


4. 


Brother-brother 


4. 


Prudence 


5. 


Friend-friend 


5. 


Fidelity 



Religion. Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism. 

Educational practice 
Elementary 

Reading of the symbols. Pupils repeat after the 
teacher, line by line. Repetition and memory. 

Books used are the Trimetrical Classic (Three 
symbols form one sentence), Century of Sur- 
names (about 400 family or clan names), 
Millenary Classic. 

Writing. Copies of simple symbols are at first 
traced and later copied. 

(Symbols depend for their meaning on position 
and accent). 

Higher 

Making verses and writing themes. 

Lectures on the Five Classics and the Four Books. 

Learning essays by heart. 

No originality in thought or style. 

Examinations 

1. Preliminary. 
2. Examination for the degree of the 'flowering 
talent' (Bachelor). 
3. Examination for the degree of licentiate mas- 
ter or 'promoted man.' 
4. Examination for the degree of 'entered scholar' 
(Doctor). 

Results of the system 

1. Composition of elegant prose. 

2. Memorising of the classics. 



72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

3. Ability to compose epigrams and epigrammatic 

couplets and quatrains. 

4. Knowledge of the family law and the five 

relations. 

5. Knowledge of China's rulers, sagas, scholars, 

states and poets. 

6. Acquisition of a code of manners and ritual. 



Egypt 

General characteristics 
Religion 

Sun and the Nile worshipped. 
Natural objects and animals looked upon as the 
embodiments of spirits. 
Social divisions 

Priests and warriors the ruling classes. 
Agriculture, trade and the handicrafts. 
Scribe and the architect of great account. 
Education 

Elementary. Reading, writing, arithmetic 
Higher. Mathematics, geometry, astronomy, reli- 
gious ritual, etc. 



India 

General characteristics 
Caste system 

Brahmas, or holy teachers. 

Kshatriyas, or soldiers and princes. 

Vaisyas, or farmers and tradesmen. 

Sudras or servants. 
Religion 

Mysticism, annihilation of the self. Contempla- 
tion. All existence to be swallowed up in 
being. 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION 73 

Hebrew 

General characteristics 
Religion. Idea of Jehovah and holiness. 
Individuality fostered. 
Priests, prophets, and scribes. 

Patriarchical system 



Ill 

MIDDLE AGES 
Period from 500 to 1500 

Dismemberment of the Roman Empire, and the form- 
ative period of nations. 



Elements Aiding Growth 

Greek. Theoretical 

Concepts and ideas 

Framework of our thoughts 

Speculative and intellectual comprehension 

Logic and syllogistic reasoning 
Roman. Practical 

Value and reality of law and government 

Principle of authority and subordination 

Organisation 

Christian. Human 

Intrinsic worth of the individual 

Leveling influence on all classes 

Kingdom of heaven 

Formal aspects derived from Greek and Roman 

Teutonic. Social 

Relation of spiritual and physical to man's needs 
Material on which Christian and Pagan forces 

could work 
Individuality and love of freedom 



Chivalry 
Ideals. Reverence for superiors. 
Consideration for inferiors. 
Gentleness towards the weak and defenceless. 
Courtesy toward all women. 
Service and obedience as ideals held up before a 

rude and lawless people. 
(Ideals held for upper classes. People as such were 
not considered). 

74 



RENAISSANCE 75 

Education of the castle 

Page. Attendance on the ladies. Waiting at table. 
Squire. Personal attendant of the lord in battle 
and tournament. 
Rudiments of love, law and religion, courtesy, 
kindliness, generosity, formalities of con- 
duct, ability to rhyme, etc. 
Knight. Religious aspects emphasised. 



RENAISSANCE 

From 800. First Period 

Charlemagne, king of the Franks, 771-814. 
Palace school, for court and nobles. Alcuin at the 
head, 735-804. 
Method of question and answer. Questions from 
the pupils (king and nobles) answered by 
Alcuin. 
Alcuin was at York till 782, at the palace school 
till 796. 
Monastery and cathedral schools 
Reading, writing, reckoning. 
Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric. Holy Scripture. 
Discipline severer in monastic schools. 
Village or parochial school 
Rudiments, Lord 's prayer, and parts of the Psalter. 



From 1300. Second Period 

Humanism. (See page 77). 

Dante, 1265-1321. 

Petrarch, 1304-1374. 

Boccaccio, 1313-1375. 

Vittorino da Feltre, 1379-1446. 
Religion. Mysticism. (See page 80). 

Brethren of the Common Life founded by Gerard 
Groot, 1340, for poor scholars. 

Reading, writing, Bible, later the classics. 
Scholasticism. (See page 79). 

John Scotus Eriugena, 810-880. 



76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Anselm, 1033-1109, founder of realism. 

Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274, exponent of Aristotle. 

Abelard, 1079-1142, founder of concept ualism. 

Forerunner of the universities. 
Duns Scotus, 1265-1308. 

William of Occam, 1270-1347, return to nominalism, 
and opening for science. 



From 1500. Third Period 

Causes 

1. Growth of commerce and towns. Feeling of 

power 

2. Discovery of the new world 

3. Scientific discoveries 

Copernicus 

Napier, Logarithms 

Galileo, Telescope 

Kepler, Laws 

Harvey, Circulation of blood 

Gunpowder used in 1118 

Printing, Gutenberg, 1453 

4. Fall of Constantinople, 1453 
5 Church reform. Luther 

6. Crusades 

Revival of learning. Humanism. (See page 77). 

Scattering of Greek scholars over Europe after 1453. 

Erasmus, 1465-1536. (See page 78). 

John Sturm, 1507-1589. (See page 78). 
Reformation. (See page 80). 

Martin Luther, 1483-1546 

Melanchthon, 1497-1560. 
Counter-Reformation 

Jesuits. Society of Jesus founded 1534 

Confirmed by the Pope, 1540. (See page 81). 

Loyola, 1491-1556 

Three main currents 

1. Scientific and philosophical 

2. Humanistic 

3. Theological 



HUMANISM 77 

Three tendencies 

1. Life of the past. Study of Greek and Roman 

classics 

2. Life of the emotions. Participation in the activi- 

ties and interests of life. Self-culture and im- 
provement 

3. World of nature 
Educational changes 

Platonic theory of contemplation substituted for the 
Heaven of monastic rules 

A purer Aristotle studied. Emphasis on his Physics 
rather than on his Metaphysics and Commen- 
taries 

Individual and concrete Latin literature as opposed 
to abstract scholastic conceptions 



HUMANISM 
Characteristics 

1. Reaction against the barren verbalism of scholasti- 

cism and the ascetism of the mystics. 

2. Return to nature and direct experience with things. 

3. Those closest in touch with nature were the an- 

cients. Hence humanism came to mean a study 
of the classics. 



Arguments at First Given 

Practical. Necessary for complete citizenship. 
Aristotle's Politics for statecraft. 
Caesar for the art of war. 
Virgil for agriculture. 
Cicero, Plutarch for running a household. 
Literature is the one source of practical wisdom. 
Necessary for personal distinction. Natural gifts 

must be enforced by learning. 
Fame possible only through a distinguished edu- 
cation. 
Morality trained. Precepts of Terence, etc., driven 
home. 



78 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

4. Social life is marked by the power of observation 
and culture. 
Emphasis gradually placed on polish and rhetorical 
finish. 



Modern Humanism (Life of Man) 

Herbartian scheme 

1. Instruction for training the disposition 

History, literature 

2. Art instruction 

Drawing, modeling, singing 

3. Language instruction 

Mother tongue, foreign languages 
Laurie (with changes) 

1. Real-humanistic 

Vernacular language, literature, composition. 

Foreign language as literature. 

History, moral instruction, etc. 

Art, as music, painting, drawing, modeling, etc. 

2. Formal- or abstract-humanistic 

Discipline of the mind. 
Grammar, rhetoric, logic, etc. 



Two Humanists, Erasmus and Sturm 
Erasmus 

Influence through his writings, translations, diction- 
aries, original works, etc. 

History, geography, natural history, agriculture, to 
be taught, not for themselves, but for the light they 
throw upon the classics. 

Discipline to be mild. 



John Sturm, of Strasburg, 1507-1589 

Gymnasium. 9 year course 

7 years for the mastery of pure, idiomatic Latin. 

2 years for the acquisition of an elegant style. 
College. 5 years course 

Pupil to be fashioned into a consummate speaker. 



SCHOLASTICISM 79 

Aim to reproduce the best periods of Greece and Rome. 
Latin authors, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Terence, 

Plautus, Sallust. 
Greek authors, Homer, Demosthenes, Thucydides, 
Aristophanes, Euripedes, Sophocles. 

Influence on the Jesuit system of education, and the 
classical curriculum at Eton, Winchester, 
Westminster. 



SCHOLASTICISM. 

Characteristics. 

Church possessed of all truth by infallible revelation. 
Dogmatic. No search for truth necessary. 

Attempt to show that the doctrinal content, whose 
truth was taken for granted on authority, was also con- 
sistent and rational. Emphasis on dialectic. 

Emphasis on realism, as opposed to nominalism and 
conceptualism 

Realism. Each concept has an existence and a real- 
ity corresponding to it. Plato's world of ideas. 
Effect would be to make the human race as such 
a reality, also the one holy Catholic Church, all 
dogma, etc., real and existential. 

Nominalism. Concept is simply a name and has no 
existence outside of the individuals which form 
the class. 
Effect would be to emphasise the importance of 
the individual, and make secular and scientific 
interests take the place of religious and ecclesi- 
astical. 

Conceptualism. Concept is simply an abstraction 
of the qualities of individual things. Empha- 
sises a similarity or identity of qualities. 
Effect would be to make, for example, the three 
persons of the Trinity to be three attributes of 
God, power, wisdom, and goodness. Emphasis 
on reason instead of dogma. 



80 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

REFORMATION. 

Causes 

Church. Clergy the mediators between God and 
man. 
Accumulation of doctrines formulated by various 

Church Councils and the Pope. 
Absolute submission of the laity to the clergy. 
Decay of the Church. Organisation tyrannous. 
Clergy corrupt and sensual. 
Individualism. Expansion of man and society. 
Individual growing in importance. 
Growth of the modern man and the Renaissance. 

Martin Luther, 1483-1546 
1517, the ninety-five theses against Indulgences 

nailed to the castle door at Wittenberg. 
1521, called before the Diet of Worms. 
Principles 

1. Man is justified by faith alone. 

2. The Scriptures are the only rule of religious 

faith and practice. 

3. All believers become kings and priests before 

God. 
Martin Luther, 1483-1546 
Education necessary for all. 
Reason and knowledge as an aid to faith. 
Education necessary for effective service in Church 

and State. 
Family discipline important. 
Compulsory education and the public school. 
Discipline mild. Freedom allowed. 
Studies. Religion, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, mathe- 
matics, logic, gymnastics, music. 
Philip Melanchthon, 1497-1560, Praeceptor Oermaniae 
Great influence, as a lecturer and as a writer of 

text-books. 
Influence in reviving higher education. 
Mysticism 

Soul is immortal 

Lowest or animal part is bound with the body. 
Logical or reasoning part is essentially human. 
Spiritual or superhuman part is divine. 



JESUITS 81 

Higher stages are reached by withdrawing from the 
world of sense and action into the world of 
thought. 
God and transcendent reality are to be approached 

by contemplation. 
Stages of education 

Purification or purgation. Asceticism, elimination 

of worldly and material interests. 
Illumination of life. Struggle with the inner life. 

Devotions and religious thought. 
Unitive or contemplative life. The goal of the mys- 
tic. Approximation of the life of God. 



JESUITS 

Educational System 

Society of Jesus founded 1534, consecrated 1540. 
Original Constitutions of Ignatius Loyala. 
Ratio Studiorum by a committee under Aquaviva. 
Aim was to defend and extend the Kingdom of God 
and the Society of Jesus. 

Classes 

1. Infhna: rudiments. 

2. Media: grammar. 

3. Suprema: syntax. (First three, grammatical.) 

4. Humanistas: poetry. 

5. Rhetorica: rhetoric (2 years). 

Studies. Chiefly Latin. Aim, to converse in Latin. 
Formation of a Latin style in speaking and writing. 
No vernacular. 
Religion. 

Neglect of arithmetic, history, geography, elements 
of algebra and geometry (Called 'erudition'). 

Methods. Memory chiefly cultivated. 
Constant repetition and review. 
Reviews at the close of each week, month and term. 
Repetition at the beginning and at the close of each 
lesson. 



82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Thoroughness. Short lessons and periods 

'Little by little.' 

'Little at a time.' 

Easy and graded work. 
Emulation the spur of industry 

Boys paired and also groups paired. 

Contests between 'Romans and Carthaginians,' 
'Greeks and Romans/ etc. 

Concertation, or Boys' challenging others' mis- 
takes. 

Incentives, as titles, prizes, decorations, public 
exhibitions, dramatic representations, etc. 

Moral suasion, sympathy and love of the teacher. 
Mild discipline. 

No home influence. 

Suppression of the individual for the good of the 
Society. 



JANSENISTS 
Little Schools of Port Royal 

Jansenist Society was founded by Saint Cyran. 
The Little Schools were founded in 1643. 
Principal teachers were : Arnauld, Lancelot, Nicole. 
General method 

1. Emulation was suppressed. 

2. Asceticism and moral pessimism emphasised. 

'Child is born wicked.' 
Gravity and dignity pushed to the extreme. 
'Speak little, endure much, pray still more.' 

3. Small classes. Five or six to a teacher. 

4. Vernacular taught first, and Greek through the 

French. 

5. Meaning in literature rather than style and 

verbal memory. 

6. Spelling and reading. Sounds of vowels and 

diphthongs taught first. Consonants pro- 
nounced in combination. 

7. Aid given to the pupil and learning made 

pleasant. 

8. Physical education looked after. 



BACON 83 

FRANCIS BACON 

Method 

Method is a necessity. 

Induction, experiment, and empirical study of the 
facts. 

Idols 

1. Of the theatre. Trust in authority and tradition, 

instead of individual judgment. 

2. Of the forum. Confusion of words. Removal 

from things. 

3. Of the cave. Individual prepossessions due to 

bodily structure, habits, education, or accident. 

4. Of the tribe. Present in every one, as, anthropo- 

morphism, personal equation, tendency to- 
wards teleology, etc. 

Pansophy or encyclopedism 

Correlation of the sciences in a unity. Outline is 
sketched in the New Atlantis. 

General 

Revolt against Scholasticism and the logic of Aris- 
totle. 
Reaction against words, phrases, and vain dialect- 
ical subtilities. 



Plan Proposed 

1. A survey of human knowledge. (Advancement of 
Learning). 

2. A method for the investigation of phenomena 
(Novum Organum). 

3. A collection of the results of natural experiences 
(Sylva Sylvarum. Incomplete). 

4. An outline plan of natural pholosophy based on 
material gathered from 2 and 3. 

5-6. An edifice resulting from materials gathered and 
formulated in a true philosophy of nature. 



IV 

HORACE MANN 

Horace Mann, in 1837, as president of the Massachu- 
setts Senate, signed a bill relating to the common schools. 
It provided for a Board of Education of eight members, 
plus the governor and lieutenant governor, ex officiis. 

Needs 

1. Public was apathetic and had to be roused. 

2. Public schools had to be made democratic. 

3. Education had to be expanded so as to reach all. 

Schools were poor and badly equipped, and 
needed to be improved. 

4. School administration was to be harmonised with 

the new social conditions. 

5. Increase in school funds. 

6. Quantity and quality of instruction to be bet- 

tered and brought to date. 
Plan of Operations 

1. Circulars sent out. 

2. Circuit of towns made and lectures and addresses 

given to teachers, committees, and those inter- 
ested in education. First tour in 1837. 'The 
Means and Objects of Common School Educa- 
tion.' Second tour, 1838, 'Special Preparation 
a Prerequisite for Teaching.' 

3. Common School Journal begun (Ran for ten 

years). 

4. District school libraries urged, 1838-1839. 

5. Normal schools recommended. 

6. Twelve school reports, 1837-1848. 

7. Teachers' Institutes begun. 
Reforms urged and established 

1. Education made democratic. All classes to go to 
public school. 

84 



MANN— BARNARD 85 

2. Reading. Word method instead of the A-B-C 

method. Mental content instead of mechani- 
cal expression. Complete selections. No 
trashy books. 

3. Science to be taught. (Pestalozzi.) Practical 

studies to have a place. Emphasis on physi- 
ology and utilitarian subjects. 

4. Objective, illustrative, and oral teachings (Pes- 

talozzi. ) 

5. Gentle methods advocated. (Result of Mann's 

European tour.) 

6. Non-sectarianism in the schools. Bible to be read 

without note or comment. 

7. District school libraries. Love of reading to be 

fostered in all children. 

8. Normal schools. First one in 1839. 

9. Teachers' Institutes. 

' ' The interests of a client are small compared with the 
interests of the next generation. Let the next genera- 
tion, then, be my client." 



HENRY BARNARD 

1838 Connecticut passed an act creating a board of 
common school commissioners with a secretary as chief 
executive officer. Henry Barnard became the first sec- 
retary of the State Board. 

Conventions were held, information collected, reports 
made, and the teachers' Institute established. The Con- 
necticut Common School Journal was begun. 

1842 the legislature repealed the act of 1838. 

1843 Rhode Island passed an act creating the office of 
commissioner of common schools. Barnard was chosen 
commissioner. He spent five years organising public in- 
struction in the state. He then resigned and returned to 
Connecticut. 

1849 Connecticut passed a new act founding a State 
Normal School, of which the principal was to be State 
Superintendant of Schools. Barnard was chosen and 
continued as superintendent till 1855. 



86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

THOMAS AND MATTHEW ARNOLD 
Thomas Arnold, Rugby, 1828-1842 

Discipline. Conditions at Rugby were bad. Drunken- 
ness, swearing, defiance, scorn of authority, lack of 
religion, servile cringing to school opinion. 

Reforms were introduced slowly at first. Arnold won 
the confidence of the Sixth form and asked them for 
their help. 'One way of making a gentleman is by 
treating him as one.' A moral basis is needed for 
school work. 

He resolutely expelled any boy whose influence tended 
to degrade the morals of the school. He became the 
chaplain of the school and gave sermons. 

He emphasised the formation of character and placed 
it above learning. Discipline and guidance are more 
necessary than instruction. 

The motives appealed to were : Admiration for valor, 
sense of duty to others, scorn for what is untruthful, 
mean or base. 

Language. Arnold was a modern humanist. Latin 
and Greek contain the experience of the race and also 
develop power. 

He tried to improve the old mechanical methods by 
making themes and verses interesting. Literary transla- 
tion was demanded. Questioning rather than lecture. 

History. 'History is past politics, and politics is pres- 
ent history.' Freeman. Comparisons were continu- 
ally made between ancient and modern history. 

Causal relations were traced. Memorising of dates 
was minimised. Biography was used. Geography is 
necessary to explain historical facts. 

The Teacher. 'What I want is a man who is a Chris- 
tian and a gentleman, an active man, and one who has 
sense and understands boys.' The teacher should have 
activity of mind and should show interest in his work. 
Travel and outside interests are necessary to prevent 
pedantry and narrowness. 



LANCASTER— BELL 87 

Matthew Arnold, Inspector of Schools, 1851-1886 

Influence. Arnold raised the aims and tone of the 
teachers by his gracious and kindly manner and by his 
generous recognition of any new form of excellence which 
he observed. 

Mother tongue. He insisted on the necessity of the 
right use of the mother tongue. Better reading books 
were advocated. Complete selections, good poetry, and 
formative subjects were emphasised. Character forming 
subjects more important than the sciences. Grammar 
is important because it is analytic, and leads to reflection 
and reason. 

Rudiments of Latin or French should be given. 

Naturhunde. Facts and laws of nature, physiology, 
physiography, botany, etc., to be given. 

Duty of the inspector is to report the state of affairs 
simply, and faithfully. 

The teacher should continue to work for self-improve- 
ment when beginning to teach. He should not consider 
his work done when he gets his diploma. 

There should be schools for all. Breadth of view is 
gained by commingling the different classes of society. 



LANCASTER— BELL 

Andrew Bell introduced his system into England in 
1797. It was first tried in London. 'Madras or mono- 
torial system.' 

Five officers: tutor, assistant, teacher, sub-usher, 
usher. 

Tutor had one child to assist in the preparation of his 
lessons. All children of one class became tutors of the 
class below. 

Assistant had charge of one class. He supervised the 
tutors and examined them. 

Teacher had charge or 2 or 3 classes. Took each 
class in turn, examining and stimulating. 

Usher had charge of the order, general arrangements 
and supply of books and slates. Acted as general super- 
intendent and took names of all disorderly children re- 
ported by the sub-ushers. 



88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Later the tutors disappear, and to each class was ap- 
pointed a teacher and an assistant, the latter simply 
keeping order. 

Classes were based on reading only, and were formed 
in hollow squares. Teacher stood on a platform. 

Reading was taught by having the children first write 
letters, words and sentences. 

Joseph Lancaster opened a school in the Borough 
Road, Southwork, 1798. 

Length of the room was twice the width. Area was 
filled with parallel desks, with a space of six feet at the 
sides for draft teaching. Opposite each draft was a 
blackboard at which a monitor operated and explained. 

Head monitor had charge of the order, changes and 
general arrangements. He was assisted by monitors of 
order who had charge of the class lists, looked after 
absentees, and distributed class supplies. 

Superior monitor tested the work of the monitors of 
drafts and superintended the work of the desks. 

Inspectors examined the classes periodically and pro- 
moted pupils when fit. 

Teaching in general was rote teaching. Mechanical 
reading, writing and arithmetic were the result. 

For discipline, Lancaster used emulation, and badges 
of merit for the heads of the class. Bell used place tak- 
ing as an incentive. 



V 

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 

UNITED STATES 

Massachusetts 

1635 Boston established a Latin School. 

1639 Dorchester levied a tax on land to support a free 
school. 

1647 Seven schools existed on the shores of Massachusetts 
Bay. 

1642 The General Court enacted laws for compulsory- 
education, and in 1647 enacted a general school 
law which provided : 

(1) That every township of 50 householders shall 
appoint some one to teach children how to read 
and write; 

(2) That every town of 100 families or household- 
ers shall set up a grammar school to fit children 
for the university ; 

(3) That money for education may be raised by 
taxation. 

1683 The General Court enacted that every town of 
more than 500 families or householders shall set 
up and maintain two grammar schools and two 
writing schools. 

The schools were town schools and the Town- 
ship Unit System prevailed. 

Selectmen, assisted by the ministers were the 
school supervisors. 

The 'traveling school' was a school kept in 
one part of the town, and then in some other 
part of the town, till all the families were 
reached. Districts were developed within the 
town. The traveling school gave name to the 
process of 'squadroning out of schools.' 
1780 The Constitution of Massachusetts was framed 
and included a state system of education. 
89 



90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

1789 The school laws were revised. A six months' 
school took place of the earlier school. 

200 families instead of 100 were necessary to 
support a Latin school. 

Books used in general were : 
Noah Webster's Spelling Book, 
Webster's Selections, 
Morse's Geography, 
Youth's Preceptor, 
Bible (as groundwork of reading). 
1817 The districts became corporations. 
1827 The districts chose teachers through the commit- 
teemen. 
1882 District system abolished. 



Connecticut 

1639 Schools were established at Hartford and New 

Haven. 
1650 A Code was enacted which provided for schools in 

a manner similar to the Massachusetts Act of 

1647. 
1662 Organisation of the schools into a single school 

system. 
1776 Towns and Societies were authorised to divide 

themselves into proper and necessary school dis- 
tricts. 
1798 The 'School Society' took the place of the town 

in school matters. 



Other States 

New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont followed in gen- 
eral the system of Massachusetts. 

Reading, writing and arithmetic were taught in the 
towns. The children were required to read with ease and 
propriety, to write a plain and legible hand, and to be 
acquainted with the rules of arithmetic. 

The school was a town or district school. 

The schoolmaster was chosen by committeemen or, 
selectmen. 

Funds were raised by taxation. In Connecticut a fund 
of $1,200,000 was obtained from the proceeds of the sale 
of the Western lands which belonged to the state. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 91 

The southern and middle states followed more slowly 
and haltingly. In Virginia private bequests were made, 
and by 1690 four schools were started. 



New York 

In 1633 the first school was established by the Dutch 
at New Amsterdam. Adam Roelandsen was the first 
teacher. 

In 1658 a Latin school was established. 

In 1787 Governor George Clinton urged the estab- 
lishment of common schools throughout the state. $50,000 
was appropriated annually for five years for this 
purpose. 

In 1813 a state superintendent of common schools was 
appointed. 



Contemporary Administration 

State 

State Superintendent or Commisisioner of Educa- 
tion. 
State Boards of Education. 
County 
County Superintendent of Schools 
Town Committeemen or Selectmen. 
City 
Board of Education. 
Board of Superintendents. 
City Superintendent of Schools. 
Schools 

Kindergarten, to age of six. 
Elementary school, eight years' course. 
High School, four years' course 
Academic. 
Commercial. 
Manual Training. 
Trade or Industrial. 
Training or Normal (for teachers). 
College. 
University. 
Professional College 



92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Law. 

Medicine. 

Theology. 

Education. 

Technology. 

Etc. 



NEW YORK CITY 

Beginnings 

1. Dutch beginnings in Manhattan, Brooklyn and 

Queens. 

2. English beginnings in Bronx. 

3. Huguenots in Richmond. 

Before 1800 

Colonial. The Dutch sent over several schoolmasters 
to teach reading, writing, and accounts. 

The English neglected popular education, but the 
Church looked after it. 
After the Revolution. Charity schools were founded 
on voluntary contributions of church members. 
Course for boys. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and 

merchants ' accounts. 
Course for girls. Reading, writing, arithmetic 

and needlework. 
Clothing, fuel, books, paper, etc., were furnished 
free. 

After 1800 

Free School Society. This was founded in 1805. 

Object was to establish a single school for the 
benefit of children not provided for by the vari- 
ous church schools. 

Incorporated by act of Legislature and appealed 
to the people for funds. 

Lancastrian or monitorial system was adopted. 
The single school soon grew to three more, and 
in 1818 a teacher was imported from England 
to teach according to the Lancastrian system. 
Lancaster himself arrived in the same year, 
1818. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 93 

Society was named the Public School Society in 1826. 
A small sum was now charged for those who could 
pay, but this resulted in decreased attendance. 
Pay was soon dropped. 
Grammar, history, geography, bookkeeping, men- 
suration and astronomy were added to the 
three R's. 
Punishment became less severe. Moral suasion 

was advocated. 
Free evening schools were established in 1833. 
Board of Education was established by act of Legisla- 
ture in 1842, while the Public School Society con- 
tinued side by side with the Board. 

The Board did not use the Lancastrian system. 
Public School Society was dissolved in 1853. 
Free Academy, 1849. College City of New York, 1866. 
Free Lectures, 1888. 
Ward trustee system abolished, 1896. 

Supervisors of special branches appointed. 
Brooklyn. Before 1843, all schools were separate dis- 
tricts schools. In 1843 all schools were brought 
under one governing body, the Brooklyn Board of 
Education. 



GERMANY 

1524. The city of Magdeburg established its schools 
on the plan advised by Luther, i. e., a day school for two 
hours and work at home for the rest of the time. 

1528. The Elector of Saxony adopted a plan for Latin 
schools upon recommendations of Melanchthon. Accord- 
ing to this plan, (1) Latin chiefly was taught, (2) fewer 
studies were taken up and (3) pupils were divided into 
classes. (Basis of the present Gymnasien). 

1559. The Duke of Wuertemberg adopted a plan of 
providing schools for all the people. It was not ap- 
proved by the state till 1565. In this system elementary 
vernacular schools were to be provided in every village. 
Reading, writing, religion and sacred music were to be 
taught. The Latin schools in every town were expanded 
into six classes instead of three, as provided for by 



94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Melanchthon's plan. Above these were the cloisteral 
or higher Latin schools. Finally came the university. 
(Tuebingen.) 

1580. The Saxony plan was revised so as to incorpo- 
rate the vernacular schools of the Wuertemberg system. 
In 1724 it provided for girls. 

1773. Compulsory education was provided for chil- 
dren from 5 to 14 years. 

Other German states, Weimar, Hessen-Darmstadt, 
Mecklenburg, Holstein, etc., followed the Saxony and 
Wuertemberg plans. Weimar had the first compulsory 
education for children from 6 to 12 years, in 1619. 

The Prussian school system was founded in 1648. It 
soon took the lead. 



Contemporary Administration 

Each state has its own administration. 
Royal Minister of Education. 
Ministerial Councilors. 
Local Administration. 
City School Boards. 
Rural School Boards. 
Inspectors or Superintendents. 
Schools 

Kindergarten. 

Common School (Volksschule, Mittelschule, Vor- 

schule.) 
Special Schools. 
Industrial. 
Trade. 
Commercial. 
Agricultural. 
High Schools. 

Classical ( Gymnasium ) . 
Naturalistic (Realschule) . 
Girls' Gymnasium. 
Normal School. 
College. 
University. 
Professional college. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 95 

ENGLAND 

To 1700 education was carried on in ancient endowed 
grammar schools and dame schools. A large proportion 
of the working classes received no education at all. 

1780. Eobert Raikes consolidated the Sunday School 
System. 

1811. The British and Foreign School Society was 
formed to carry out the ideas of Lancaster. 

1811. The National Society, consisting of churchmen, 
was formed to carry out the ideas of Bell. 

1820. Brougham brought forward a scheme of na- 
tional education, but because of religious differences it 
came to nothing. In 1833 £20,000 was granted to aid 
school building, and distributed among the National 
Society, the British and Foreign School Society, and in 
Scotland, among the ministers. 

In 1802, 1819 and 1833 factory acts were passed. By 
these acts, children were not allowed to work before 9 
years of age; night work for children was prohibited; 
young persons between 9 and 13 years of age were al- 
lowed to work only 12 hours a day; children in fac- 
tories were to receive instruction in reading, writing, and 
arithmetic. 

1833. An Education Department was created. It 
established a system of inspection of all schools which 
received government grants. 

1861. Payment by results. Grants were distributed 
according to the number of pupils who passed satisfac- 
tory examinations. 

1870. Elementary Education Act. Any district could 
elect a school board, which was to levy a rate and spend 
it to aid schools or to build and manage schools of its 
own. In these school boards no catechism nor dogmatic 
formulas were allowed. 

1890. A new Education Code was issued abolishing 
payment by results. In 1891 a bill was passed which 
created free education in elementary schools. 

Compulsory education to 10 years in 1880; to 12 in 
1889 ; to 14 in 1900. 



96 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

SCOTLAND 

1696 Landholders of each parish were required to 
provide a schoolhouse and to support a schoolmaster. 
There was no uniformity. Control of the teacher and the 
supervision of the schools was in the hands of the 
Church. 

Secondary schools sent boys directly to the university. 
Later, in 1800, the selection of teachers was made by the 
taxpayers. 



Contemporary Administration 

Central Board of Education 

Apportionment of grants for education. 
Inspection of schools. 
Local County Councils and Borough Councils 
Distribution of the government grants. 
Levying of taxes for support of the schools. 
Appointment of an education committee to control 
academic affairs. 
Schools 

Public or Board Schools 
Infant, 3 to 7. 
Elementary, over 7. 
Denominational and private schools. 
Public Schools 

Eton, Rugby, Harrow, Winchester. 
Technical and training schools. 
University. 



FRANCE 

1684. Institute of the Brethren of the Christian 
Schools was founded by Jean Baptiste de la Salle. In 
1719 the Institute numbered 27 houses and 274 brothers, 
by 1800 it numbered 122 houses and 800 brothers. 

The subjects of instruction were reading, writing, 
arithmetic and religion. Silence was the rule for teach- 
ers and pupils. Written work was emphasized. Cor- 
poral punishment was used freely. 

1795. The National Normal School and secondary 
schools were established. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 97 

Public education dates from 1833. Guizot, Minister of 
Public Instruction, carried out a law which established 
elementary schools, primary and grammar, in every com- 
mune. These schools were free to the poor. 

1881. Primary education was made free and com- 
pulsory in 1882. 

1886. The present sj^stem of schools, controlled by the 
state, was established. 

1901. All religious congregations were required to 
obtain from the state legal recognition in order to carry 
on their work. 

1903. All religious schools practically closed. 



Contemporary Administration 

Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts 
Advisory Boards 
General 
Departmental 
Primary. 
Secondary. 
Higher. 

Divisions of France 
17 Academies. 
90 Departments. 

Schools 

Maternal schools (Ecoles maternelles) . 2 to 6 

years. 
Infant schools (Ecoles infantines). 4 to 7 years. 
Primary schools 

Lower, 6 to 13 years. 
Higher. (Five-years high school course.) 
Normal schools. 
State universities. 



VI 

RISE OF UNIVERSITIES 

Roman-Hellenic Schools 

At Alexandria, about 200 B. C. 
Studies. 

Trivium and quadrivium. 

Medicine, mathraeties, grammar. 

Neo-Platonism and mysticism. 
At Rome, about 100 A. D. 
Studies. 

Rhetoric and grammar. 

Trivium and quadrivium. 

Philosophy and law. 



Christian Schools 

Opposed to humanities and Hellenism ('Writings of 
the heathen'). 

Salvation of the soul, the end of education. 
Founders 

Pantaenus headed catechetical schools at Alex- 
andria in 181. He was followed by Clement 
and Origen. 
Cassian taught at Marseilles in 404, and St. Bene- 
dict taught near Naples in 428. 
Subjects 

Theological discussion. 

Scriptures, devotional exercises, severe bodily 

labor. 
Eeading, only to understand the Bible and the 
services. 
Instruction 

Primary. Alphabet, reading of the Latin psalter, 

writing (on parchment), singing, Latin 
Secondary. Trivium and quadrivium, Latin 
grammar (Donatus and Priscian), tables, 
maxims and proverbs. 
98 



UNIVERSITIES 99 

Higher. Logic or dialectic, advanced mathematics 
(arithmetic to calculate Easter and festival 
days), astronomy (names and courses of the 
constellations), geometry and mensuration. 
(General aim was the proper understanding of 
the Scriptures.) 



Old Types of Schools 

1. Catechetical, monastic and cathedral schools. 

Under Church control ('Christian schools'), 

Religious training. 

Opposed to humanities and Hellenism. 

2. Guild and burgh schools 

Controlled by secular bodies. 
More practical studies. 
Modern studies introduced. 

3. Private schools and tutors 

4. Endowed grammar schools. 

Latin and classical curriculum. 



Great Public Schools 

New Type of School 

Influenced by the Renaissance. 

Humanistic training. 

Founded by private or royal grants. 

Independent of the Church and State. 

Aristocratic. 

1. Winchester. 

Founded by William of Wykeham, 1393. 

2. Eton. 

Founded by Henry VI., 1440. 

3. St. Paul's. 

Founded by John Colet, 1510. 

Erasmus, Linacre and Colet wrote books for the 

pupils. 
Lily was master, 1511. 

4. Shrewsbury, 1551. 

5. Westminster, 1560. 



100 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



6. Merchant Tailors', 1561. 

7. Rugby, 1567. 

8. Harrow, 1571. 

9. Charter House, 1609. 



Universities 
Beginnings and causes 

1. Work of the cathedral and cloister schools. 

2. Growth of learning and the demand for 

specialisation. 

3. Growth of a lay or antimonastic feeling in con- 

nection with the work of the physician, 
lawyer, etc. 

4. Actual specialisation in studies 

Medicine at Salernum. 
Law at Bologna. 

Philosophy and theology at Paris. 
(Specialised schools as opposed to the 
schools of arts, and open to all). 
Salernum. 

1065. Constantine taught medicine at Salernum, 
Italy. 
Naples. 

1224. Frederick II. constituted the University of 
Naples. The subjects were: Arts (tn- 
vium) and law, medicine and theology. 
There was an organised body of teachers 
with titles, privileges and immunities. 
Bologna. 

1100. Irnerius taught law at Bologna. (Roman 
law, Code of Justinian.) Frederick 
recognised the university and issued let- 
ters of privilege in 1158. 
Paris. 
1100. 
1113. 
Oxford. 

Between 1117 and 1121 Thibaut d'Estampes, a 
learned Norman, taught letters at Oxford 
to from 60 to 100 scholars. 



William of Champeaux taught theology. 
Abelard became head of the Paris school. 



UNIVERSITIES 101 

1133. Robert Pullein gave lectures on the Holy 

Scriptures. 
1149. Vacarius gave lectures on civil law. 
1264. Walter de Merton obtained a charter, and 
in 1274 settled a small body of Fellows 
and Scholars at Oxford. No 'religious 
person,' i. e., no monk or friar was al- 
lowed to be a member. 
1282. Balliol was founded. 
1314. Exeter was founded. 
1326. Oriel was founded. 
1340. Queen's was founded. 
Cambridge. 

1280. Peterhouse copied the statutes of Merton 
College, Oxford. The college dates back 
to 1200. 
Prague, 1347. 
Heidelberg, 1385. 
Halle, 1694. 

First modern university. 
Beginnings of Lehrfreiheit. 
Harvard 

1636-1637. The General Court of Massachusetts 

founded the College. 
1638. John Harvard bequeathed to the college 
half of his estate, and his library of 300 
books. College was named after him. 
Yale. 

1700. Two ministers contributed a number of 

books. 

1701. Formally founded at Saybrook, and later 

removed to New Haven. 
Pennsylvania, 1745. 
Princeton, 1746. 
Columbia, 1754. 
"William and Mary College. 

1693. Second oldest college in the United States. 

Before the Revolution, one of the most 

important colleges. 



102 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

College of the City of New York. 

Free to all. No charges for instruction, books or 

equipment. 
1847. Free Academy founded. 
1866. Name changed to 'College of the City of 
New York.' 



Constitution of Universities 

University or Studium Generale. 

1. Specialised school for men only. 

2. Free teaching and free learning. 

3. Free autonomous organisation of teachers and 

scholars. 

Expression studium generale was used in the thir- 
teenth century, and meant the place where one or more 
of the liberal arts might be prosecuted. It was open to 
all and was free from monastic control. 

Expression universitas was originally applied to 
towns or commtmia as organised bodies. As applied to 
studium it meant a community, and later a learned 
community. (1300) 

Constitutions were granted to trade-guilds in the 
eleventh century. In the universities, the nations elected 
their own rulers and judges. They were like the guilds 
and sought freedom from civil and ecclesiastical inter- 
ference. 



Privileges 

1. Fixed salaries paid by the state. 

2. Were exempt from imperial taxes, service in war 

and from discharge of municipal duties. 

3. Had the right of internal jurisdiction. Benefit of 

clergy, i. e., right of judgment by university 
body. 



Faculties 

Medicine and law were originally classed under the 
liberal arts. 



UNIVERSITIES 103 

Theological faculty? was the first to be incorporated as 
a separate body at the University of Paris in 1260. 
Other faculties were then incorporated separately. Rise 
of the faculties broke up the organisation of the nations, 
i. e., the bodies of students organised on the basis of 
nationality. The three higher faculties were first de- 
veloped at Paris, theology in 1260, medicine in 1265 and 
law in 1271. 



Graduation 

Guild corporations had 

1 apprentices, 

2 assistants, 

3 masters. 

An assistant became a master when he had performed 

some special work. 
Universities 

No specific titles at first used. 
Later, formal examinations were held. 
Teachers were called sometimes magistri, sometimes 
doctores. Titles were applied to students who qualified 
by taking examinations. Later the term magister was 
assigned to the faculty of arts, and doctor to the facul- 
ties of law, theology or medicine. Applicant for the 
degree of 'master' had to hold a public disputation 
against all comers. Bachelor was used to mark the com- 
pletion of the 'trivial' course. Degrees were in use 
about 1200. 



Studies 



Grammars of Donatus and Priscian were dictated, ex- 
plained and learned by heart. 

Dialectic and rhetoric was taught from epitomes. 

Cicero, Virgil, etc., were read to illustrate rules of 
grammar and rhetoric. 

Humanistic studies were overshadowed by dialectical 
disputations on definitions, the nature of ideas, etc. 

The regent met students three times a day, at sunrise, 
at noon and towards evening. At one meeting defining 
and disputation occupied the time. 



104 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

For the degree of bachelor, the student defined or de- 
termined logical terms and propositions in the presence 
of his master. 

For the degree of master, he attended lectures and 
maintained a thesis or disputation in public. 



General Value 

1. Stimulation of free inquiry. 

2. Training of the youth for public duties. 

3. Example of democratic organisation. 

4. Intellectual interests organised, preserved and 
prosecuted. 



BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

Abelakd, Peter, B. at Pallet (Pallais), near Nantes, 
1079 ; d. 1142. Pupil of Roseellin of Cornpiegne and of 
William of Champeaux; lectured at Melun, Corbeil and 
Paris. 

Alcuin, Ealhwine, B. at York, England, 735; d. at 
Tours, 804. Educated at York; came to France under 
Charlemagne; was Master of the Palace School, and 
served as general superintendent of Charlemagne's 
scheme of educational reform. 

Aristotle, B. at Stagira in Chaldice, 384 B. C. ; d. at 
Chalcis in Euboea, 322, B. C. Pupil of Plato ; instructor 
of Alexander, 343; founded Peripatetic school of phil- 
osophy, 335. Organon; Nichomachean Ethics; Politics; 
Poetics. 

Arnold, Matthew, B. at Laleham, 1822; d. at Liver- 
pool, 1888. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Bal- 
liol College, Oxford; made inspector of schools, 1851; 
appointed professor of poetry in Oxford, 1857. Reports 
on Elementary Schools, 1852-1882; Higher Schools and 
Universities in Germany, 1882; Culture and Anarchy, 
1869. 

Arnold, Thomas, B. at Cowes, Isle of Wight, 1795; d. 
at Rugby, 1842. Educated at Winchester and Corpus 
Christi College, Oxford; head master of Rugby, 1828- 
1842 ; appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, 
1841. History of Rome, 1838-1843. 

Ascham, Roger, B. at Kirby Wiske, Yorkshire, 1515 ; 
d. at London, 1568. Educated at St. John's College, 
Cambridge; became university orator and master of 
languages to Lady (Queen) Elizabeth; appointed Latin 
Secretary to Edward VI., and Queens Mary and Eliza- 
beth. Toxophilus, 1545; The Schoolmaster, 1570. 

Bacon, Francis, B. at London, 1561; d. at London, 
1626. Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; entered 
Gray's Inn and joined the embassy to France; called to 
the bar in 1582; entered the House of Commons, 1584; 
made a Queen's counsel, 1596; prosecuted his benefac- 
tor, Earl of Essex, 1601; appointed solicitor general, 

105 



106 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

1607, to clerkship of the Star Chamber, 1609, attorney 
general, 1613, lord keeper, 1618, lord chancellor, and 
Baron Verulam, 1619, and Viscount St. Albans, 1621; 
charged with corruption, 1621. Advancement of Learn- 
ing, 1605; Novum Organum, 1620; Essays (58), 1625. 

Barnard, Henry, B. at Hartford, Conn., 1811; d. 
1900. Educated at Yale College; teacher in Pennsyl- 
vania ; admitted to the bar, 1835 ; secretary of the Con- 
necticut Board of Education, 1838 ; Commissioner of the 
Common School of Rhode Island, 1843 ; Principal of 
the State Normal School, Connecticut, 1849. 

Basedow, Johann Berend, B. at Hamburg, 1723; 
d. at Magdeburg, 1790. Teacher in Denmark; founded 
the model school at Dessau (Philanthropin) , 1774. 
Elementarwerk, 1774. 

Bell, Andrew, B. at St. Andrew's, Scotland, 1753; 
d. at Cheltenham, England, 1832. Clergyman of the 
Church of England ; superintendent of the Madras Male 
Orphan Asylum, India, 1787-1796 ; introduced his sys- 
tem of teaching in England, 1797. 

Comenius, John Amos, B. at Nivnitz, Moravia, 1592; 
d. at Amsterdam, 1671. Studied at the University of 
Nassau, 1611-1613; pastor at Fulneck, 1616; exiled 
1624; master of a school at Lissa, Poland; invited to 
England, 1641 ; invited to Sweden, 1642 ; elected Bishop 
of the Moravian Church at Lissa, 1648 ; invited to Hun- 
gary, 1650 ; at Lissa. 1654-1657 ; retired to Amsterdam. 
Didactica Magna, 1628-1632; Janua Linguarum Reser- 
ata, 1642 ; Orbis sensualium Pictus, 1659. 

Erasmus, Desiderius, B. at Rotterdam, 1465; d. at 
at Basel, Switzerland, 1536. Dutch, classical and theo- 
logical scholar ; edited the New Testament in Greek with 
a Latin translation; edited the classics. 

Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August, B. at Ober- 
weissbach, 1782; d. at Marienthal, 1852. Studied at 
Jena, 1801 ; teacher, 1805 ; visited Yverdun, 1805 ; studied 
at Goettingen and Berlin, 1811-1812; soldier, 1813-1814; 
assistant in mineralogy at Berlin, 1814 ; opened the Uni- 
versal Educational Institute at Greisheim, 1816; moved 
to Keilhau, 1817; government inspection of the Insti- 



BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 107 

tute, 1824-1825; opened an orphanage at Burgdorf, 
1835 ; opened a school for children at Blankenburg, near 
Keilhau, 1837; name 'Kindergarten' given, 1839; 
opened training school at Liebenstein, 1850; retired to 
Marienthal, 1851. Education of Man, 1826 ; Mutter und 
Kose Lieder, 1843; Letters on the Kindergarten, 1838- 
1852. 

Herbart, Johann Friedrich, B. at Oldenburg, 1770; 
d. at Goettingen, 1841. Educated at the Oldenburg gym- 
nasium and the University of Jena; private tutor at 
Berne, Switzerland, 1797 ; visited Pestalozzi at Burg- 
dorf, 1799 ; returned to Germany 1800 and settled at 
Goettingen ; appointed professor of philosophy and ped- 
agogy at Koenigsburg, 1809 ; called to Goettingen, 1833. 
Pestalozzi's Idea of the A, B. C of Observation Scientifi- 
cally Considered, 1804; Esthetic Revelation of the 
World, 1804 ; Science of Education, 1806 ; Application 
of Psychology to Education, 1831 ; Text-Book in Psy- 
chology, 1834 ; Lectures and Letters on Education, 1835 ; 
Outline of Educational Doctrine, 1841. 

Lancaster, Joseph, B. at London, 1778; d. at New 
York, 1838. Son of a soldier; seaman in the navy; 
teacher under his father's roof; founded a private 
school in the Borough Road, Southwark, London, 1798; 
came to the United States, 1818, and taught in Phila- 
delphia and New York. 

Locke, John, B. at Wrington, Somerset, 1632; d. at 
Oates, Essex, 1704. Educated at Westminster School 
and Oxford; became lecturer in Greek, 1660, and rhet- 
oric, 1662; went as secretary to an embassy to Branden- 
burg, 1664; resided with Lord Ashley (Earl of Shaftes- 
bury), 1667; held public office, 1698-1700. Essay Con- 
cerning Human Understanding, 1690; Thoughts on 
Education, 1693 ; On the Conduct of the Understanding, 
Post. 

Loyola, Ignatius de, B. at Guipuzcoa, Spain. 1491 ; 
d. at Rome, 1556. Educated as page in the court of Ferd- 
inand, the Catholic; converted at the siege of Pamplona 
by the French, 1521 ; entered the University of Paris, 
1528; projected a religious order {Society of Jesus), 
1534. 



108 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Mann, Horace, B. at Franklin, Mass, 1796 ; d. at Yel- 
low Springs, Ohio, 1859. Admitted to the bar, 1823 ; sec- 
retary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, 1837- 
1848; Whig member of Congress, 1848-1853; president 
of Antioch College, 1852-1859. 

Melanchthon, Philip, B. at Bretten, Baden, 1497; 
d. at Wittenberg, Germany, 1560. Educated at Tuebin- 
gen; professor of Green at Wittenberg, 1518; author of 
Greek, Latin and Hebrew grammars. 

Milton, John, B. at London, 1608; d. at London, 
1674. Educated at St. Paul's School and Christ's Col- 
lege, Cambridge; lived at Horton, 1632-1638; traveled 
in France and Italy, 1638 ; appointed Latin secretary, 
1649 ; in hiding at the Restoration of 1658 ; blind, 1663. 
Tractate on Education, 1644. 

Montaigne, Michel, Eyquem de, B. at Dordogne, 
France, 1533; d. 1592. Educated at Bordeaux; at the 
court of Francis II, 1559 ; with Henry III, 1571 ; trav- 
eled in France, Switzerland and Italy, 1580; mayor of 
Bordeaux, 1581. Essays, 1580. 

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, B. at Zurich, 1746; 
d. at Neuhof, 1827. Agricultural experiment with pau- 
per children at Neuhof, 1771-1798; experiment in edu- 
cating destitute children at Stanz, 1798 ; teacher in the 
schools at Burgdorf, 1799-1805; manager of the Insti- 
tute at Yverdun, 1805-1825 ; at Neuhof again. Evening 
Hours of a Hermit, 1780; Leonard and Gertrude, 1781; 
How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, 1801 ; Book for 
Mothers, 1803 ; My Swan Song, 1826. 

Plato, B. at Aegina, 429 B. C. ; d. at Athens, 347 B. C. 
In youth, a gymnast, soldier and poet; disciple of Soc- 
rates; traveled in Egypt, Cyrene, Sicily and Magna 
Graecia; founded the Academy about 300. Republic; 
Laws. 

Rabelais, Francois, B. at Chinon, Touraine, 1495; 
d. at Paris, 1553. Studied at a convent and became a 
monk, 1509; studied medicine at Montpellier, 1530; 
traveled in France and Italy; in charge of the parish 
at Mendon, 1550. Pantagruel, 1533; Gargantua, 1535. 



BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 109 

Ratke, Wolfgang, B. at Wilster, Holstein, 1571 ; d. 
1635. Student of Hebrew, Arabic and mathematics; 
presented his system of teaching languages before the 
Diet at Frankfort, 1612; tried his method in Anhalt- 
Koethen. 

Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, B. at Geneva, 1712; d. at 
Ermenonville, near Paris, 1778. Apprenticed to an 
engraver, 1724-1728; vagabond, 1728-1732; in Paris, 
1741 ; Dijon Academy prize, 1749 ; exiled because of his 
Emile, 1762; in Switzerland and England, 1762-1766; 
in France, 1767 ; in Paris, 1770. New Holoise, 1761 ; 
Social Contract, 1762 ; Emile, 1762. 

Socrates, B. at Athens, 470 B. C. ; d. at Athens, 399. 
In youth a sculptor; later a student of philosophy; sol- 
dier at Potidea, 431, at Delium, 424, and at Amphipolis, 
422 ; president of the Prytanes, 406, and opposed to the 
Thirty Tyrants; accused of impiety and of corrupting 
the youth, 399. 

Spencer, Herbert, B. at Derby, 1820; d. 1903. Edu- 
cated by his father; articled to a civil engineer, 1837- 
1845; assistant editor of the Economist, 1848-1853; 
issued the prospectus of philosophy, 1860. Education, 
Intellectual, Moral and Physical, 1861. 



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